Philosophy that was born during the Renaissance Essay Example for Free

Philosophy that was born during the Renaissance Essay secular benignantism is a philosophy that was born during the Renaissance, beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century. The theory introduced new ways of thinking that allowed people to question and interpret the Bible anyway they wish. Prior to humanitarianism, people lived their lives chthonian the impression that it was all to serve god. It wasnt until people began winning an interest in the work of classic philosophers that straight appreciation of homosexual life became app arnt. Humanism inspired people to believe that their life was meaningful and that they were cap equal of more than just working to please God. The key principle of the theory was that military man beings are not subject to God or any divine agency. They have no obligation to love, fear or obey any such(prenominal) necromantic agent. (Victor A.Gunasekara) When the importance of human life prevailed, t present was no longer a st rained religious perception of e ruseificeh and society and this is when the granting immunity of artistryifice and self-expression sincerely took stool. Art was no longer a way of glorifying God, tho a way of showing individualism and creativity at heart unmatchables self.The origins of Humanism shtup be found in the Golden Age of Greek Philosophy. Xenophanes (580 BCE) said, If cattle had hands and drew fancys of Gods, Gods would look like cows making it patent that Gods are of our avouch making. When Protagoras (450 BCE) wrote, Man is the measure of all things, of things that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are not. he was accused of impiety and was banished for creating such freethinking sentiments that would be considered thoroughly unpredictable for his time. His words are metaphorical of us knowing the world by our aver dimension, from our point of view. He crafted the idealistic principle of human perception that shaped the humanism p hilosophy we know today.Humanism was not limited to mental thoughts and ideas on the pry of human life, unless shown physically by means of a spectrum of art mediums. The theory shaped various aspects of Renaissance art including the content, style and subject matter of all art forms.During the middle ages, well before Humanism took form, art was notable for glorifying and praising God. During this time, all art was assigned from the church and so the subject matter consisted of mainly biblical themes, stories and characters. Within these paintings, man wasnt represent with anatomical perfectness, but as a small, off scale and minor element next to a much larger religious figure. Within some all of Middle Age artworks, biblical figures were seen is the most powerful and most historic and so they were made to look exceedingly larger than people or children, who were painted on a much smaller scale. The importance of these religious figures was also shown finished height and p lacement within the picture.They were often painted higher(prenominal) than other figures, adding to the all overall impersonal and symbolic outlook of Middle Age art. Because most of the work at this time was so religious, people werent able to connect and view art for the purpose of enjoyment, but for worshiping a higher presence. Take the Ognissanti Madonna (1310) for example. The painter, Giotto, depicts Mary and her son with saints surrounding them. Theyre portrayed as actually large, while everyone else in the painting is very small. Neither of the two are life size nor are they anatomically accurate. However the most unequivocal aspect within the painting is the overstated size of the two most important biblical figures, Mary and Jesus. This was the conventional style of Middle Age art. The value of human life was never considered, nor was it illustrated through paintings or sculpture.During the late 14th century, Artists began looking at natural depictions of the world an d antique pagan culture. The notion of human form that characterized medieval art was supplanted with the concept of full anatomical accuracy. With the celebration of human life, precision of the human body within paintings and sculptures became a crucial per centum of depicting the realistic perception within art, one that was not justified by any singular religious context but ones desire for perfection. heap began painting secular subjects and portraying man with the same importance that was used for religious figures within the Middle Ages.When the prominence of human life prevailed, people began taking an interest in the accurate portrayal of human characters. This provoked a range of pictorials to be created in parallel with the human form, reflecting the balanced and symmetrical form of the human body in art. Artists began creating precise proportions or the golden mean in pasture to establish symmetrical and harmonious composition within a varied spectrum of art mediums. The Golden lowly is the desirable middle between two extremes and is given the number Phi(= 1.618033988749895) Commonly known as the divine proportion to Renaissance artists, the Golden Mean was used for atheistic appeal and balance within computer architecture, but was often used effectively for other visual art forms, such as paintings or sculptures. Collective to the Greek mentality, the golden mean was considered an attribute of beauty that included symmetry, proportion and harmony.The Golden Mean can be derived with a number of nonrepresentational constructions, each of which divides a line fraction at the unique point where the ratio of the whole line (A) to the large segment (B) is the same as the ratio of the large segment (B) to the small segment (C). (http//www.goldennumber.net/golden-section/) Paintings, buildings and sculptures adapted and drew inspiration from classical roman structures (a time when the Golden Mean was recognized To Greeks as dividing a line in the e xtreme and mean ratio) during the gritty Renaissance period in order to interlace the crucial abstainer appeal that was desired when Humanism was at peachy interest.High Renaissance style architecture conventionally begins with Donato Bramante (1444-1514) who built the Tempietto at S.Pietro in Montorio, Rome in 1510. The Tempietto is an attempt at reconciling Christian and humanist ideals. With no limitations of Humanism on any particular art medium, Michelangelos sculpture of David in (1501) is a perfect example of its boundless effect on accurately conveying the human body with precise proportions and measurements. Other works relating to Humanism included The blood line of genus Venus (1485), by Botticelli.Prior to Humanism, the majority of art appeared two dimensional or flat. These artists were one of the starting signal to begin adding vast details and highlighting the color of space, form and dimension in all art mediums. Combining these and taking into mind perspective (the notable technique of all Renaissance artworks) they ultimately crafted the learn of humanist art molding the backbone of the High Renaissance. In order to embrace this philosophy within art, artists needed to seek the relationship between the human body and mathematics. These artists are one of the many from the High Renaissance period to articulate this relationship physically through multiple art forms.Before the High Renaissance, there was Early Renaissance. During the mid 14th century, architects such as Leon Battista Alberti and Flippo Brunelleschi began taking an interest in proportion. The concept was that a building should be fitted together with such proportion and connection, that nothing could be added, diminished or altered, but for the worse.(Alberti) The rising theory of proportions was looked into by a number of artists and many architects such as Alberti and Brunelleschi over a long Period of time, but it wasnt until Leonardo da Vincis Vitruvian Man (1490) tha t people started to take it seriously. Not limiting himself to just art, but exploring the realms of math, music and science, da Vinci used his experience and knowledge to establish the link between art and mathematics. Some would say that his work acted as a accelerator pedal towards the start of the High Renaissance and that he was able to pave the way for painters, sculptures and architects that were interested in creating realistic dynamics of human proportion within their art medium.When Michelangelo was commissioned in 1501 by the Board of Works for Florence Cathedral to sculpt David from marble, he used the opportunity to illustrate the true growth of the art motion and the influence of Humanism on various art forms. Michelangelo works against the medieval concept of humanity, a time where man was seen as sinful, immoral and born of dope. He shows David before the fight, highlighting his ability as a human to make conscious decisions and a choice to commit himself to act. This depiction of man is one who can become godlike through his own intellect and power of will.Compare this David to Donatellos David, made out of bronze during the 1440s. Donatello depicts David as a materialization boy, looking rather effeminate in a shepherd hat and boots. Hes shown with a smug smile and his foot on Goliaths divide head subsequent to the battle. Donatellos version of David is an interpretation of the biblical text. His feminine like physic serves the purpose of clarifying that his triumph in throwing the stone at Goliath was not of his own doing, but rather Gods will. He is created very close to the biblical story, having hat and boots typical of a shepherd, where as Michelangelos Davids complete nudity shows how he has stripped almost all biblical context from him, focusing entirely on the human entity.He is no young, scrawny boy that follows God blindly, but a man with the ability to make his own choices and fight his own battles. His full nudity shows the t rue beauty of the human anatomy, which fascinated Michelangelo. Not only has his work shaped the perception of humanity through symbolic catalysts, but through the riveting merriment of the human form with accurate proportions, illustrating the perfect use of the golden mean. It is clear that a grave amount of thought and work went into creating an accurate insight towards the human body. Davids hands and upper body are made slightly larger in order for the human form to look accurate and proportional when seen from the ground. The truthful portrayal of vein and muscle within the body highlights the humanistic elements within the sculpture.In contrast to this, Donatellos David looks quite unusual and incongruous, although he was sculpted at a younger age than Michelangelos David, their anatomical differences are distinct in a way that cant go unrecognized. Donatellos work shows shoulders and a chest that are diminutive and slightly disproportioned to the rest of the body. Prior to Humanism, there wasnt this striving focus for anatomical excellence within art for anyone unless they were a religious character holding the supremacy over man kind that everyone once believed they had. His work on David provided the humanist vision with its first and most prevailing artistic expression. Hes shown as a strong and heroic man, not a smug boy as shown in Donatellos sculpture.The Birth of Venus, painted by Bottichelli in 1486 is a celebration of Renaissance Humanism, depicting the classical myth. The picture is very calming and somber, focusing on the true beauty of Venus with warm and soft tones. Venus, Goddess of Love, is shown emerging from the sea on a shell, parallel to the story of her birth. There is an emphasis on sea imagery that was used to please church authorities. Zephyr and Chloris are blowing her to the shore with wind, amongst a shower of flowers, while a Nymph, Flora, is reaching out to carry on her naked body with a cloak. The nudity of Venus was ve ry unconventional at the time primarily, pictorials of naked women were only shown through portrayals of Eve but here Venus stands completely naked and not in a biblical context. In a time when almost all artwork wasof Christian theme, the truthful portrayal of Venus and the secular imagery had a crucial impact on High Renaissance art and was a catalyst for other artists to explore humanistic elements within their work. Venus, the goddess of love is depicted in human form with such magnificence and accuracy that humanist themes are not suggested, but a manifest to Botticellis audience.Godly figures began taking form of earthly beings and showing the true exquisiteness of the female body. There is a de-emphasis of deep space in order to stress the sense of pattern and beauty that defines the painting. Flora is not giving the cloth for just modesty, but giving her the veil of wisdom. She shows us how great intellectual gifts are always concealed from plain sight.Botticellis portrayal of the female body is used to further drive ideas of Humanism. Her physique is quite an accurate and refreshing portrayal compared to earlier years were nudity was not yet established in non biblical paintings. Her stomach is a truthful portrayal of what a women with some muscle tone in her abdomen would have, the legs and arms are somewhat shapely, showing the female body in its most natural form. Venus in this painting is both humble and pure. Its plausible that one of the main themes within this painting, second to Venuss birth is the idea of beauty.The picture has a decorative quality to it not only does it showcase the substantial change in art during the High Renaissance, but its symbolic of a moneyed classical history, reinvention and an earthly world view. It is through The Birth of Venus, and many other High Renaissance paintings, where the true impact of Humanism is made clear. Artists would incorporate Greek and Roman mythology as apposed to writing and painting about b iblical texts. This was because humanists turned to the classics for inspiration, and so these were often the themes of High Renaissance art. The inspiration of Greek Philosophers inspired those within this period to strive less for divinity. This painting is one of the many to depict Roman or Greek deities, other famous works include vitiate and Venus and The School of Athens.One of the most outstanding changes during the High Renaissance period was architecture. The statement that man is the measure of all things is mirrored within divers(prenominal) art mediums, showing a great point of difference within humanist and non-humanist architecture. Humanism meant that architects built not only churches, but palaces and buildings exposing ideals of classical styles.Humanism gave people a chance to look for inspiration from ancient Greeks and thus buildings took influence from the Ancient Classic period. One of the highlights in High Renaissance Architecture is the Tempietto, built i n 1502 by Donato Bramante. The building marks the crucifixion site of St Peter and follows selected traditions from the Christian building the Martyria while employing classical principles that create a geometric ideal. Both ancient Greeks and ancient Romans employed the circular plan that governs the perception of the Tempietto.The devotion to symmetrical perfection makes it clear of Bramantes conscious decision to flirt this in a way that is not only true to the humanist theory, but one that depicts the thoughts of the ancient roman writer Vitruvias, who studied and wrote about architecture and correct proportions within it. Bramante is really following this line of thought with the Tempietto. Hes created a radial building with a round structure that is very dissimilar to the traditional crucifix form of church, which is based on the ancient basilica. His work is considered almost nothing short of architectural brilliance, due to his innovative techniques at changing the orthodox designs of churches and buildings.The building is the perfect example of the relationship between ideal ancient geometry and the divine. Geometry was thought by the ancient Greeks and again later in the Renaissance to be a vehicle in which we can imagine the perfection of heaven. The Tempietto is a building that truly celebrates Humanism. Its believed to show how man can produce exemplars on earth of the perfection of the heavenly, using correct geometrical structures and symmetrical portrayals. This is similar to that of the golden mean, while relating to the work of Michelangelo and Botticelli, where Humanism was celebrated through the accurate portrayal of the human form.The Humanist theory allowed Bramante to make these changes within architecture he drew inspiration from classical traditions while making his own original decisions to enhance the symmetrical nature of the Tempietto. His work is similar to that of classical origins, but he allowed for variation. Greek and Romans would not put pilaster that pairs with the columns of the building, however Bramante did. By reorient the true columns with the false columns, he was able to maximize the radial quality and overall centrifugal theme of the building. The Tempietto shows a rhythm, one that was definitely inspired by classical antiquity, the Doric Order in particular.The columns of the Tempietto are a roman variant of the first level of the Coliseum. Depicting the styles of the Doric Order, there are triglyphs and metopes supra the columns. Mitchell Beazley was literal when he wrote The emphasis here is on the harmony of proportions, the simplicity of volumes (cylinder, hemisphere) and the sobriety of the Doric Order. The circular plan symbolizes divine perfection. Inspired by ancient temples, the Tempietto is both a homage to antiquity and a Christian memorial.Humanisms affect on architecture was one of the largest. Despite differing in architectural elements, different styles of columns were explor ed passim all High Renaissance architecture, utilizing techniques that show proportion and highlighting themes of classical tradition. Nearly all buildings constructed after Humanism follow these principles and show a shiny influence of ancient Greek and Roman cultures. The Humanist movement allowed architects to make changes in what they were creating. They drew inspiration from classical architecture, traditions and even philosophies and refabricated it within new architectural masterpieces that shaped the Humanist theory in many inconceivable ways.Alberti and Brunehlleschi were a crucial aspect in the innovation of humanist architecture. They were no Greek philosophers, however they employed the idea of symmetrical excellence and inspired the creations of many renowned and prominent buildings including the Tempietto itself. Many great architects of the high renaissance period such as Bramante and Michalangelo were captivated by this idea and were thus able to shape traditions a nd techniques to produce the conventional high renaissance architecture style that were accustomed to today. inclusive to classical traditions, architects began taking the beauty of human proportions and reflecting it through architecture, similar to the way humanist painters and sculptors depicted the human form with symmetrical perfection.Humanism was noted for 3 things. The revival of classical Greek/Roman art forms and styles, faith in the nobility of man as apposed to pure worship of religious or god-like figures and at last the appreciation of the human body, that influenced almost all artists and architects of the era to portray this accurately in their work. Humanism shaped the art of the High Renaissance period through a change in architectural style and content subject matter of paintings and sculptors and a difference in the anatomical structure and proportions of man.People became important and an appreciation for human life fell apparent through a range of art where hu man history and perspective was no longer considered sinful, but was explored multiple times with a range of artists. Humanism provoked the study of classical and mythological traditions. Paintings began to depict Roman or Greek deities. Biblical figures no longer subjugated artworks with height and proportion, but became equal to man. Sculptors began creating humanist characters that were strong and noble, architects began referring to classical and ancient antiquity for new innovation towards humanist architecture the freedom of thought and self expression was at its highest.

Boy in the Striped Pyjamas Film Essay Example for Free

Boy in the Striped Pyjamas Film EssayI am very distressed about living in this dreadful place. I absolutely hate it I cant believe we moved from the trounce house EVER With 5 floors if you included the basement and the top floor with the window where if I stand on the end of my toes I could see the satisfying of Berlin, to this place which Im pretty sure is the worst house ever. I miss Berlin so much but most of all I miss you and grandfather. This house is really small too, and I mean it is tiny It only has 3 floors which means there is not a lot of exploring to be done like in Berlin, in Berlin I had explored every single place I could think of but and then I find something saucy all of a sudden. Also mother and father dont let me explore in the new back garden because it is out of bounce. What ever that means. at that places nothing to explore in the front garden either because its so small.Perplexed, I stood and gazed through my bedroom window. There were so many farmer s working on one huge field with little huts that disappeared into the distance The thing that horrified me most of all was that even kids scratch line from the age of about 4 were working and they looked so anorexic. Each time the soldiers shouted the kids would huddle closer and closer together. They all seemed so scared as if they were being forced to, hmmm All of the farmers looked really skinny, almost anorexic. One of the farmers even works in our kitchen peeling all of the vegetables.I found it really verbose with nothing to do so I decided to make a swing. To make the swing I needed some rope which was easy to find, and a tire which was a little trickier I interrupted Gretel whilst she was flirting so I could ask lieutenant Kotler if he had a spare tire. After a long and boring chat he gave me one and I made my swing.Once I had finished building the swing, I enjoyed it really well. But then I fell and hurt my knee really bad. I thought I would bleed to death but then a far mer called Pavel that worked in our kitchen ran over and helped me. After he had cleaned and bandaged my cut mother had finally arrived. She had figured out what happened almost immediately, she did not look pleased.

Carbon Nanofoam Structure and Functions

light speed Nanofoam Structure and FunctionsAbstract ampere-second nanofoam is the fifth allotrope of hundred after graphite, diamond, fullerene (e.g., C-60 molecules), and blow nanotubes. It was sight in 1997 by Andrei V. Rode and his team at the Australian National University in Canberra, in collaboration with Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute in St Petersburg. The molecular body structure of coulomb nanofoam consists of century tendrils bonded together in a depressive disorder- concentration, mist like arrangement.This theme talks about the physical structure, chemical properties, preparation methods and applications of atomic number 6 nanofoam. The most unusual airscrew of Carbon nanofoam is its ferromagnetism it gets attracted to magnets, like straighten out. At a temperature as low as -183 C, Carbon nanofoam be stick outs like a magnet. Also, the foam is a semiconductor, qualification it attractive for contrivance applications. The reason for the foams magnetised p roperty has been explained in the paper.Carbon nanofoam is hence the first pure-Carbon magnet and also one of the lightest cognise strong substances (with a parsimoniousness of 2 mg/cm3), when used along with aerogel. The Carbon nanofoam is believed to remove charismatic prejudice among the known elements, the idea than an element should be stereotyped as either charismatic or nonmagnetic.1. INTRODUCTIONCarbon nanofoam was find by1Andrei V. Rodeand co-workers, in collaboration with Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute in St Petersburg at theAustralian National UniversityinCanberra in the year 1997. It is the fifth allotrope of Carbon after graphite, diamond, fullerene and Carbon nanotubes.The molecular structure of Carbon nanofoam consists of Carbon tendrils, bonded together to go a cluster- like assembly of low density in a loose three- dimensional web pattern. The width of each cluster is about 6 nanometers, consisting of about 4000 Carbon atoms. These Carbon atoms nuclear numb er 18 linked in the piss of graphite- like sheets but consist of heptagonal structures included among the hexagonal patterns, giving it a negative curvature, (Figure 1(a)) unlike the Buckminster fullerenes 1 in which the inclusion of pentangular structures gives the Carbon sheet a positive curvature. The density of Carbon nanofoam is approximately 2 mg/cm3, which makes it one of the lightest known solid substances, the other being aerogels whose density is about 100 times more than that of Carbon nanofoam 1.According to Rode and his colleagues 1, nanofoam contains a number of curious electrons due to the Carbon atoms with only three bonds, represent at topological and bonding defects. This gives rise to the most unusual feature of Carbon nanofoam, which is that it is attracted to magnets. Moreover, below 183C Carbon nanofoam acts as a magnet itself. Another property of Carbon nanofoam is that unlike aerogels, Carbon nanofoam is a poor conductor of electricity.The clause for the magnetic property of Carbon nanofoam is that only freshly produced Carbon nanofoam is ferromagnetic Carbon nanofoam is powerfully attracted to a permanent magnet at room temperature, initially. This room temperature ferro- magnetic behavior disappears after a few hours of preparation of the Carbon nanofoam, when the temperature eventually fluctuates to go above the room temperature. However, the ferro-magnetic property persists at lower temperatures.Depending on the jam of the ambient Argon flatulence inside the chamber where high- pulse, high- energy laser excision 3 4 5 and deposition of Carbon megrims is performed, antithetic Carbonaceous structures atomic number 18 formed. At a pressure of 0.1 Torr*, diamond- like Carbon films atomic number 18 formed. As the pressure is increased to greater than 0.1 Torr, diamond like Carbon- nanofoam is produced. The density of the Carbon nanofoam depends on the density and the polymerization chemistry used during the sol-gel process 3 4. The particle diameter of low density foams is the largest, which is up to 100 nanometers, with a pore size of at least 500 nanometers. The high- density Carbon foams swallow pores of size less than 1000-Angstrom Units and the particles are ultra-fine, the density being approximately 0.8 grams/cubic centimeter. Electrically conductive Carbon nanofoams are also under production, which has many properties of the traditional aerogel material. Prepared by sol- gel methods, these materials are available in the form of monoliths, granules, powders and papers. The foams prepared by these methods are typically of low density, dogging porosity and high capacitance.The most intriguing property of Carbon nanofoam is its Ferro magnetism (Figure 1(b)). The reason for the existence of this unusual property attributed to an allotrope of Carbon, which is conventionally believed to be a non- magnetic element, is due to the complex microstructure of the nanofoam. Few researchers claimed that the f erromagnetism is due to the presence of traces of iron and nickel impurities in their foam. Later they calculated that the niggling amounts of these magnetic materials could only account for 20% of the strength of the ferromagnetic fields in the foam and conclude that the ferromagnetism is an intrinsic property of this allotrope of Carbon. The unpaired electron that does not form a chemical bond in the 7- corner, 7- edged polygons present in the structure of Carbon nanofoam has a magnetic moment, which is suspected to be the reason of its magnetism.*1 Torr is approximately equal to 1 mmHg 1 Torr = 133.322368 PascalDue to the magnetic properties of Carbon nanofoam, it can be used in a number of applications namely, medicine, optics, fuel cells and other electronic devices. They are also being used as lightweight, high temperature insulation materials, absorbents and coating agents and as electrodes for water deionization cells. In biomedicine, Carbon nanofoams are used as tiny ferr omagnetic clusters, which could be injected in stemma vessels, in order to increase the quality of magnetic resonance imaging. Another application of Carbon nanofoams is in spintronic devices, whose operations are based on the materials magnetic properties.The researchers also have preliminary indications that the novel magnetic behavior also occurs in another nano-compound made of boron and nitrogen, two other elements that are normally non-magnetic.The following parts of this paper discuss in detail, theMolecular StructureSynthesis methodsProperties, andApplications of Carbon nanofoam.2. STRUCTURE OF vitamin C NANOFOAMCarbon nanofoam consists of Carbon atoms bonded by some(prenominal) sp2 and sp3 hybridizations, unlike the other allotropes of Carbon such as graphite and diamond which have only sp3 hybridization and C60 and Carbon nanotubes that have only sp2 hybridization 7. just about 4000 such Carbon atoms are bonded together in the form of a cluster-like assembly of low den sity. In other words, these Carbon atoms are bonded in the form of graphite-like sheets but consist of heptagonal structures included among the hexagonal patterns, giving it (Carbon nanofoam) a hyperbolic pattern, as proposed for schwarzite6The percentage distribution of the sp2 and sp3 hybridizations can be controlled by during the synthesis of the nanofoam. amply pulse-rate optical maser Ablation method for the synthesis of Carbon nanofoam by A. V. Rode et al 1 demonstrates that there are two types of particles in the foam and that here is a small amount of particles with a high sp2 fraction (0.9) of graphite-like bonds, due to crystalline graphite used in the experiment. Particles with a fraction, generally lower than 0.8 sp2 are inferred to consist of formless Carbon with a mixture of sp2 and sp3 bonding. Particles with lower sp2 content and a higher(prenominal) Plasmon energy are more diamond-like, as they have higher density and a higher fraction of sp3 bonds. Upon measurem ent, it has been observed that these is a high sp3 content at the edges of the foam and at the edges of the cluster, which is a clear indication that the sp3 bonding atoms are regain at the surface of the clusters and that the connections between the clusters are due to the sp3 bonding.3. SYNTHESIS OF CARBON NANOFOAMThe synthesis of Carbon nanofoam is done on a laboratory scale and is not produced industrially, in bulk. Two methods are adapted for the preparation of Carbon nanofoams, depending on different types of requirements such as particle size, density, resistivity, etc. The two methods are listed and explained below.3.1. optical maser AblationLaser ablation is the process of removing material from a solid (or occasionally liquid) surface by exposing it to radiation with a laser beam. Depending on the blend in density of the laser, the effect of laser ablation varies. For a more clear description at low laser flux, the material is heated by the indifferent laser energy and evaporates or sublimates. At high laser flux, the material is typically converted to plasma. Usually, laser ablation refers to removing material with a pulsed laser, but it is workable to ablate material with a continuous wave laser beam if the laser intensity is high enough.High-repetition-rate laser ablation and deposition of Carbon vapors results in the arrangement of quite different Carbonaceous structures depending on the pressure of the ambient Ar gas in the chamber. Diamond-like Carbon films form at a pressure below 0.1 Torr whereas a diamond-like Carbon nano-foam is created above 0.1Torr. The creation of particular molecular structures involves atom-to-atom attachment in countenance physical conditions at an appropriate rate.3.1.1. Experimental SetupThe experimental setup of the experiment conducted by E.G. Gamaly and piers is as follows a 42-W, 120-ns pulse-width Q-switched Nd YAG laser ( = 1.064 mm) with variable repetition rate of 2-25 kilohertz was used. Laser of in tensity approximately 109 Watts/cm2, averaged over the pulse duration was created on the glossy Carbon aim, keeping the repetition rate fixed at 10 kHz and focal spot scanned over a 2X2 cm area of the target surface.3.1.2. Formation of Carbon Nanofoam in Ar ambient temperatureThe diamond-like Carbon (DLC) films is deposited in vacuum of approximately 106 Torr.Transformation to a different form of Carbon material occurs in an Ar-filled chamber at a pressure around 01Torr. At this pressure, the mean free path for collisions of the evaporated Carbon atoms is in the order of 1 cm. Thus, Carbon-Carbon and Carbon-argon collisions in the chamber start to play a dominant role in the formation of Carbonaceous structures in Ar-filled chamber.The high-repetition-rate laser evaporation of a Carbon target in a 1-100 Torr Ar atmosphere produces a higher evaporation rate of Carbon atoms and ions than conventional laser ablation techniques.The resulting increased average temperature and density o f the C-Ar mixture in the experimental chamber increases the probability of the formation of higher energy Carbon-Carbon bonds.The resulting increased collision frequency from the above deposition conditions encourages diffusion-limited aggregation of Carbon atoms into fractal structures, and the formation of low density Carbon foam.Figures 3.1.2. (a) and 3.1.2. (b) show the examine and transmission electron microscope images respectively, showing the free-standing Carbon foam. These images are scaled to 1 mm and 100 nm respectively.The analysis of these images reveal that the foam represents a fractal-like structure which consists of Carbon clusters with the average diameter of 6 nm randomly interconnected into web-like foam.The foam looks like a capricious mixture of strings of pearls. 3Initially, the flow of atomic Carbons is created by the laser ablation near the target surface. After the chamber is filled with an inert ambient gas, it results in the collision of Carbon atoms w ith the ambient gas atoms, as the Carbon plume expands. Hence, the Carbon atoms collide, diffuse through the gas, exchanging their energy, and finally cool down to the average Carbon-gas temperature.3.2. Sol Gel ProcessThe sol-gel process, also known as chemical solution deposition, is a wet-chemical technique widely used in the fields of materials science and ceramic engineering. Such methods are used mainly for the fabrication of materials (typically a metal oxide) starting from a chemical solution (or sol) that acts as the precursor for an integrated interlock (or gel) of either discrete particles or network polymers. Typical precursors are metal alkoxides and metal chlorides, which undergo various forms of hydrolysis and polycondensation reactions.Carbon nanofoam is also prepared from the pyrolysis of organic precursors, such as organic aerogels produced through sol-gel processes (such as resorcinol formaldehyde sol-gels) (Figure 3.2.). The sol-gel solution is cast into the de sired shape and after the formation of a highly cross-linked gel the solvent is removed from the pores of the gel. The remaining rigid big shape consists of covalently bonded, nanometer-sized particles that are arranged in a 3-dimensional network. Precursor RF gels can be applied to a fine Carbon felt which is Carbonized to form Carbon nanofoam electrodes 9.The Carbon nanofoam thus prepared usually has low density and very high specific surface areas (up to 1200m2 g-1), and they can be produced in different forms, such as monoliths, fine particles or films. The final shape and properties depend strongly on the sample history, as is the case with all amorphous Carbons.4. PROPERTIES OF CARBON NANOFOAMMany of the properties of Carbon nanofoams match with those of the traditional aerogel materials. Carbon nanofoams are available in the form of monoliths, granules, powders and papers. They are electrically conductive, synthetic and lightweight foams in which the solid matrix and pore sp aces have nanometer-scale dimensions.Prepared by sol-gel methods, nanofoams typically have low density, continuous porosity, high surface area, and fine cell/pore sizes. The foams are also electrically conductive and have a high capacitance. Standard densities of Carbon nanofoams range from 0.25 to 1.00 g/cm3. Carbon nanofoams precursors can be infiltrated into a Carbon fiber mat that, when Carbonized, will result in paper-like electrode material 0.007 to 0.050 inches thick.Morphology examination by scanning electron microscope shows an open cell structure and continuous porosity. The particle size and pore spacing is a function of density and the polymerization chemistry used during the sol-gel process. Low density Carbon nanofoams (0.25 g/cm3) have the largest cell/pore size with particle diameters of up to 100 nm and pores at least 500 nm. High density Carbon foams (abt. 0.8 g/cm3) have ultra-fine particles and pores of less than 1000.The nanofoam contains numerous unpaired elect rons, which Rode and colleagues propose is due to Carbon atoms with only three bonds that are found at topological and bonding defects. This gives rise to what is possibly Carbon nanofoams most unusual feature it is attracted to magnets, and below 183 C can itself be made magnetic.4.1. Ferro magnetism of Carbon nanofoamIt is a well-known fact that Carbon and its allotropes are among those materials which do not get attracted to magnets. Although, it has been discovered that Carbon nanofoam is attracted to magnets, and below 183 C can itself be made magnetic. This behavior of Carbon nanofoam is unusual as against the magnetic property generally attributed to Carbon. However, at room temperature, the nanofoams magnetization disappears a few hours after the material is produced.The reason for the magnetic behavior of Carbon nanofoam is discovered to be its molecular structure it consists of a number of unpaired electrons due to the Carbon atoms with only three bonds that are found at topological and bonding defects. The unpaired electrons contribute towards the existence of magnetic moment in the nanofoam, which is believed to be the reason for its ferro magnetic character.Detailed explanationSpeaking in terms of magnetic susceptibility, in general, all known Carbon allotropes exhibit diamagnetic susceptibility in the range of =(105-107) emu/g Oe with the exception ofPolymerized C60 prepared in a placoid rhombohedral phase of = +(0.251.3)*103 emu/g Oe (depending on the orientation of the magnetic field relative to the polymerized planes) which shows ferromagnetismThe disordered glass-like magnetism observed in activated Carbon fibers due to nonbonding -electrons located at edge states, andThe unusual magnetic behavior observed in single wall Carbon nanohorns ascribed to the forefront Vleck paramagnetic contribution.Although ferromagnetism in polymerized C60 is noteworthy, the exceptionally large magnetic signal in Carbon nanostructures such as Carbon nanofoam remains a case of particular interest.In order to study the ferro magnetism of Carbon nanofoam, an experiment was conducted by Rode and his colleagues. They prepared Carbon nanofoam by high-pulse-rate laser ablation of an ultrapure glassy ampere-second target in a vacuum chamber made of stainless steel, filled with high-purity (99.995%) Argon gas, inside a 2 inch cylinder made of coalesced silica (SiO2). This setup results in the formation of carbon nanofoam, with a combination of sp2 and sp3 hybridization. The reason for the magnetic character of Carbon nanofoam was then discovered to be the ferromagnetic interaction of the spins of the unpaired electrons, separated by sp3 centers. 6A possible mechanism for magnetic moment generation would be a simple indirect qualify interaction through conduction electrons located on the hexagons. Low temperature magnetization curves indicate a saturation magnetization of approximately 0.35emu/g at 2 K. 105. APPLICATIONS OF CARBON NANOFOAMCa rbon nanofoam is one of the lightest known solid substances till date. Hence, it finds its application in a number of fields. Although there are no immediate applications of Carbon nanofoams, a few of the possible areas where there can be applied are as followsThey could be used in spintronic devices, which are based on a materials magnetic properties.In biomedicine the Nano metric scale ferromagnetic clusters could be injected into blood vessels to enhance magnetic resonance imaging. It could also be implanted in tumors, where it could turn radio waves into a source of heat that would destroy the tumor but leave surrounding tissue unharmed.Carbon nanofoam can replace the nanofoams of other metals because of its low density, high conductivity, light weight and also its ferro magnetic property.As coatings or absorbents in specialty opticsAs flexible electrodes for deionization and fuel cellsCarbon nanofoam paperMaking of High-Sensitivity Ultrasonic Transducer in AirHigh-performance m etal-air batteriesSpintronics, meaning spin transport electronics is also known as magnetoelectronics. It is an emerging technology which, in accompaniment to its fundamental electronic charge, exploits both the intrinsic spin of the electron and its associated magnetic moment, in solid-state devices. Spintronic devices find their application in perhaps the most master(prenominal) computer subsystems random access memories and high density non-volatile storage media. Hence in order to develop large memories on a small chip, making the chip as light weighted as possible is also very important. This is where the use of carbon nanofoam gives the desired result.Carbon nanofoam paper is another kindle application of carbon nanofoams. Due to its composition, carbon nanofoam paper has proven very difficult to cut using traditional methods such as metal blades. It was found that using 100 W of power at a speed of 250 inches per minute (IPM) the 0.0075-inch thick carbon nanofoam paper was cleanly cut. 11For a high-sensitivity ultrasonic transducer in air, nanofoam can be considered to be applied to its acoustic matching layer. Since nanofoam has extremely low acoustic impedance, it is effective for the acoustic matching layer of an ultrasonic transducer in air. The sensitivity of the developed ultrasonic transducer can be made up to about twenty times higher than that of a conventional ultrasonic transducer in air. 12The desirable structural characteristics of carbon nanofoams can be exploited to design and produce electrocatalytic structures for O2 reduction that will enable high-performance metal-air batteries. While the native carbon nanofoam structure exhibits modest activity for O2 reduction, further functionalization of the nanofoam is necessary to achieve technologically relevant performance. 136. CONCLUSIONIn conclusion, this term paper throws light on a recently discovered allotrope of carbon called as Carbon Nanofoam, whose molecular structure and propert ies are different from the other allotropes of carbon such as graphite, diamond, C60, amorphous carbon, carbon nanotubes and fullerene. Carbon nanofoam is found to be one among the lightest known solid substances, which gives it an advantage over other substances in a number of varied applications.The most intriguing feature of carbon nanofoam is its magnetic property. This novel magnetic behavior found in carbon nanofoam has made many renowned scientists and researchers rethink about what makes a material magnetic, since ferro-magnetism is not one of the attributed properties of carbon in any of its forms. Furthermore, this ferro-magnetic characteristic of carbon nanofoam, along with its other characteristics such as extremely low acoustic impedance, low density, continuous porosity, high surface area, fine cell/pore sizes, electrical conductivity and high capacitance is believed to have wide applications in the development current technology whose motto is The smaller the better

Introduction And Project Methodology Management Essay

Introduction And Project Methodology Management EssayAs steadfastlys grow the determination of the father needs to change (Burns 2007, p242). For the make for of a firm as well as for the behaviour of its entrepreneur-cum-leader, academic and business geological formation knowledge offers numerous simplistic models and frameworks. A key question is non only whether these models from deuce different subjects growth model on iodin hand and leadership model on the other hand fit together, provided whether a definite industry with certain entrepreneurs demonstrates behaviour different to theory.In this project, the relegate will explore how different entrepreneurs with different leadership styles and personality muckle still be successful in taking their creation through different stages of business growth for the same product/ proceeds and how they can continue to maintain the differentiation. In the assignment, we will also test our findings (matching patterns and un lessions) with what we pass water studied in this module. Greiners vanadium phase growth model and cinque stages of a business growth pay been used (and some clock interchangeably) by us to test patterns from practice with theory for the measly cost bloodlinelines (LCC low cast carriers).Project MethodologyFirst, we did a root word discussion to familiarise with the topic of growth stages and leadership approaches based on material of the MBA modules Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management and Perspectives of Leadership. Section 2 gives a brief overview of the groups discernment of leadership approaches from academic knowledge and experience to be linked with practical evaluation after.As from the second step the tension was from practice to theory which is cover in Section 3. We decided for the Low-Cost-Carrier Industry to be evaluated.Third, we define which LCC cinchlines to be evaluated and comp bed to each other and which features would be evaluated. Second and th ird stage of the project methodology is covered by Section 3.1.Fourth, we poised primary and secondary data through in xse research in press, internet, articles, personal interviews, etc. and bundled them into a guide ( attend Appendix 2).Fifth, we evaluated and compargond the collected data for analysing as result (section 3.3).Sixth, the results were interpreted to derive key messages and to test models (with what we have learnt in the MBA module on Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management) (section 3.4).At locomote, we felt responsible to use our findings for recommendations for the future of the LCC organisations and its entrepreneurs (Section 3.5). A conclusion covers the project groups lessons learned based on this project (section 4).2. Groups Understanding and Theoretical Background schoolman research and general knowledge gives us frameworks to investigate practical examples of entrepreneurs concerning the development of their business and of themselves as leaders. He nce it is important to point out what kind of brain the group has in footing of business growth models as well as entrepreneurial personality and leadership.2.1. maturation ModelsOur groups understanding of business growth is emphatic anyy not that growth is the shortest connection between the starting point and the current point of time. Growth demonstrates phases of business increase as well as of decrease, stability, crisis, and changes. unrivaled of the closely used growth models was developed by Greiner (1972) who pointed out alternating phases of evolution (creativity, direction, delegation, coordination, collaboration) and of revolution (leadership, autonomy, control, red tape). Each phase of growth is followed by a crisis that necessitates a change in the way the founder manages the business if it is to move on and continue to grow (Burns 2007, p210).Churchill and Lewis (1983) developed a growth model screening five stages of existence, survival, success, take-off, a nd maturity. Very abutting to this is the five-stage model proposed by Scott and Bruce (1987) embracing the stages of inception, survival, growth, working out, and maturity with focus on top vigilance mathematical function, management style, and organizational structure. At least(prenominal) Burns (1996) suggested a quadruple-stage model covering stages of existence, survival, success and take-off and summarizing the main business imperatives as a firm grows in terms of the orientation of the firm () (Burns 2007, p218). after(prenominal) an evaluation of several models the project group decided to consider Greiners five phase growth model and five stages of business growth as the a priori framework to compargon our findings.2.2. LeadershipOur group understanding of leadership is that it is a relationship through which one person influences the behaviour or actions of other commonwealth. For our investigations on entrepreneurs we are aware that thither is a difference between leadership and management. The 7-S framework used in strategic management provides a distinction that managers desire on strategy, structure and governing bodys whereas leaders are concerned with the soft Ss of style, staff, skills and shared goals. A key questions discussed in this group was Is an entrepreneur a manager or a leader? At least he is some(prenominal) in one person. Hence it is valuable to consider both of an entrepreneur his managerial role as well as his leadership approach.Mintzberg (1990) classifies the activities of organized sets of behavior associated with a position based on dinner gown ascendency and status. He points out ten managerial roles divided into three groups which are linked to the evaluations of this project in section 3.4.Regarding general approaches to leadership, we face in real business life, at that place is no mutual exclusiveness. Hence contemporary entrepreneurs may demonstrate several leadership approaches in one person. For this pro ject, main leadership models of historic and contemporary research were to be considered, such as leadership as a behavioral category, the styles of leadership approach, the situational approach of contingency theories, the transformational leadership approach and inspirational or visionary leadership.3. From fare to Theory3.1. Frame of EvaluationWe decided that to ensure valuable evaluation, the industry of choice should be a young industry and it should provide industry and market place growth within the last ten to thirty years, several start-ups associated with single entrepreneurial idea, and some industry consolidation. To bring in domain knowledge, we discussed that the solely group should be familiar with the industry either as clients or as managers working in that industry. At last we decided on the Low-Cost-Carrier (LCC) Industry since we on the whole are frequent customers and one group member is in charge of a full service airline in a leading management position.3. 1.1. The Low Cost Carrier IndustryA low-cost carrier or low-cost airline (also known as a no-frills, discount or figure carrier or airline) is an airline that gener all told in ally has lower fares as compared to full service airlines like British atmospheric stateways, KLM, Air France, Lufthansa, American Airlines, etc.. To make up for the revenue lost in decreased ticket price, the airline may charge for extras like food, priority boarding, seat allocation, baggage etc.. The key characteristics of LCCs are bigeminal frequencies on a short/mid haul sectors, quick turnaround, secondary/tertiary airports, offerings in economy class only, usage of web/call marrow squash based modesty system and not the GDS (Global Distribution systems), no food and rarely any loyalty programme. Low-cost carriers should not be confused with regional airlines that operate short flights without service, or with full-service airlines offering some reduced fares.The reasons why LCC airlines came up i n practice dates back to 1960s. Until late 1960s, travelling by air was restricted to the higher classes of the society. Only from 1960s, it percolated to the upper middle class, as costs came defeat and the fuel prices were low. There was change magnitude demand for the huge middle class to travel by air if the same became cheaper. This underlying need was captured by the entrepreneurs in the form of Low Cost Carriers which was pioneered by south-west Airlines in regular army and was replicated in different ways all over the world. The momentum ga at that placed steam with the increased globalization and integration from 1980s onward. The regulatory regime defined by agreements between countries or regional groupings became more liberal and the frequencies of flights increased bringing the overall cost platform down. Further, the cost of the aircrafts and air travel came down out-of-pocket to the technological improvements leading to lower cost at higher volume.The technologi cal strides in ICT (information and communication technology) brought the booking system of the airlines at the doorstep of the passenger. He could be sitting in his surroundings, book a ticket, choose his own seat and print a boarding card. This reduction in costs due to technological innovations opened up an opportunity for LCC to establish its foothold by cutting on costs at different steps of its supply chain. correspond to Vesper (1990) the LCC industry demonstrates execution of two business entry strategies. Firstly, the strategy to develop a better product or service which is appropriate because of insatiate demand in terms of cheap flights providing no frills. The established competitors on the carrier market such as British Airways, KLM, Lufthansa etc. reacted against these new entrants but more or less actually late. Hence some LCC airlines already established their own operations. Second, the strategy to meet supply shortages, leave-takingicularly on the short-haul m arket, there was a market parallel to the railway industry. Currently, in spite of demand and supply in balance, some LCC airlines maintain their competitive advantages and continue to drive the market.Since there were numerous LCC airlines operating globally (Appendix 1), reflexions in deciding for LCC airlines to be investigated were to ensure diversity over different geographical markets to emphasise on a whole industry in terms of entrepreneurial behaviour and availability of information. We decided on 5 airlines as mentioned in table 1. (Please refer to Appendix 2 for data).Table 1 Companies and entrepreneurs to be investigated3.1.2. Key Evaluation FeaturesBurns (2007, p30) points out four different influences on owner-managers and entrepreneurs. Whereas culture of society and situational factors are not the focus of this project, personal character traits and preceding influences were investigated to draw a picture of the individual background of the entrepreneurs. In additi on we looked at individual leadership approach. In terms of organizational development and business growth we focused on five milestones (Table 2).Table 2 Key features to be evaluated on chosen entrepreneur and his LCC airline.Derived from the collected data based on the key features described above, three main issues were investigated to ensure a solution on growth models and associated leadership approaches in the LCC industry at leastWhy did they succeed whereas so many after and before them failed?Development of the culture in the organization if anyRecommendations for the future3.2. informationPlease see Appendix 2 for the secondary data that were gathered through research on internet, press and media, newspapers, and television.3.3. ResultsThe key question for description and comment of the results is Is there any pattern or consistency over all evaluated LCC airlines or not?In terms of the investigated background and leadership of the founders Burns describes antecedent inf luences on an entrepreneur which are most likely to result in them successfully growing their business (2007, p45)Well-educated Two (Air Berlin and Ryan Air) of five investigated entrepreneurs do not have any academic graduation whereas the other three entrepreneurs have diverse degrees from Bachelor to Honorary PhDs. But all of them already had broad and in-depth managerial and professional experience at the point of time of idea genesis.Starts business because of positive motivations. wholly entrepreneurs had positive motivations towards their own idea and were convinced gruellingly that their business will be successful and will grow.Leaves managerial job to start business This was found to be different. Although all entrepreneurs had managerial experience before, their prevailing last step before becoming an entrepreneur in LCC industry was distinct. One was unemployed (Air Berlin), two had their own business (Southwest and loose Jet), one was manager in the same LCC organiz ation (Ryan Air), and one (Air Asia) was manager in a different industry.Middle-aged (or actually young?) We found a range between 28-40 in the age of the entrepreneurs for the point of time of the businesses starting point. They were 28 (Easy Jet), 30 (Ryan Air), 37 (AirAsia), 40 (Air Berlin), and 40 (Southwest) years old. Obviously no one entrepreneur was close to retirement and no one was very young (begin of twenties or even younger).Willing to share willpower of business All entrepreneurs shared ownership from the very beginning but in different ways and it is not obvious whether they had a general inclination to that or whether it was needed, e.g. to collect enough notes for their start-up.In terms of personal character traits all of the following were founded as high in every investigated entrepreneurCommitment, determination and opportunity obsession.Tolerance of risk, equivocalness and uncertainty.Creativity, self reliance and ability to excel. Most of the entrepreneurs pioneered the LCC model for their home market as first mover and developed LCC business models later.Control and rewards. We saw very strong control by the entrepreneur in all investigated organizations mostly aiming to bring down costs.In terms of values, ethics, beliefs and norms all of the entrepreneurs worked very hard (Everything for the company) and evaluate a similar inclination from their staff. In daily business they appreciate each resource and hence aim to be most efficient.Concerning leadership all entrepreneurs provided an autocratic and patriarchic style with strong control, centralized decision-making and high closeness to their employees. A vision is part of their leadership approach as well derived more or less obviously from their individual targets for their life. Honesty, reliability and action as an example are further aspects they all practice what they preach. This remains even during the growth of their businesses but the entrepreneurs developed different le adership styles. Some tried to keep the autocratic style whereas others tended to be more participative but all of them kept strong control. According to a major research study of the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research, the most effective leader provides four common characteristics Delegation of authority and avoidance of close supervision interest and concern in their subordinates as individuals participative problem-solving high standards of performance. Except the former and the latter we found all aspects in later stages of growth but not consistently and not whilst the inception stage.Regarding the motive for entrepreneurship, it is obvious that there is consistency in the way of idea contemporaries. In all of the five airlines, idea for LCC was generated by individuals. For Southwest and Ryan Air, there were more people involved in implementation in addition to idea generator. Two of the promoters (Air Berlin and Air Asia) were forced to choose entrepreneur ship due to professional circumstances.There has been a considerable partitioning in the duration of the inception phase/ start-up. For example this phase in the case of Air Asia lasted for a year but for Air Berlin it took about ten years. But generally the other airlines exhibited a period of around five years. All organizations were run by the promoters except Ryan Air which had Michael Leary as its head due to the losses at Ryan Air. Financials were pooled by the promoters themselves but there was a variance in the financial capabilities from deep pockets to just enough money to make operations run for a year. Two of the entrepreneurs (Easy Jet and Ryan Air) had strong financial backing.In terms of environmental factors (PESTER) each airline had a different set of compelling factors. Due to the dismantling of the Berlin wall, airlines had a new segment opening up which was tapped by Air Berlin (political). Low fares attract more customers try to wean away customers from other modes of transport tapped by all the LCCs (economic). The target consumer base for budget airlines was enormous 500 million people live within three hours of Air Asias hubs in Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok, more than Western Europes entire population (social). Ryan Air started when there was a partial de-regulation changing the way the airlines flew (regulation).Consistency in all LCC airlines was evaluated in terms of delegation (highly centralized with all the major decisions being do by the promoters/funders), coordination (there was a very high take aim of coordination in three airlines while high coordination in two them), and control (in Air Berlin there was very high level of control, while in the other airlines it ranged from medium to high).For all the airlines the survival and growth stage has been a pretty long time except for Air Asia which has achieved tremendous growth in the few years of its start-up.In this stage the LCC airlines demonstrated some small distinct behavio r. The delegation level increased during this phase of the business except in the case of Air Berlin which followed low delegation. Coordination was medium in Easy Jet while was high in the be four. Control was very high in Air Berlin, high in Southwest, Ryan Air and AirAsia, and was medium in Easy Jet.In four of the airlines original founder and management team are in place. The only exception is Easy Jet which had a CEO right from its start-up in 1995. This could be because the founder of Easy Jet had been a business man before this start-up and knew well how to delegate and where to focus.Clear patterns of consistency can be seen in that all the airlines went for IPO in this phase, thus showing the willingness of entrepreneurs to share the growth of the firm. Furthermore, all LCC airlines took equity stakes and formed alliances with other airlines. For example Air Asia formed a partnership with contend corporation in Thailand, Easy Jet purchased a 40% stake in Swiss charter air line TEA Basle. The reasons were two fold one to take care of certain regulatory issues in their markets and secondly to help grow faster. In addition all airlines initiated cost cutting techniques to take on the competition.In the maturity stage the delegation level decreased for two of the airlines (Ryan Air and Southwest) in view of the precarious business model while continues low for Air Berlin. For Easy Jet and Air Asia the delegation level remains high.On the other hand coordination and control are on high level in all airlines. All the founders maintain a very high level of control on the overall strategy and functioning of the airlines.The external environment factors like the financial crisis, high oil prices, etc. have had the effect on the management structure and control mechanisms for majority of the airlines. There also have been roll backs on the investment plans. The promoters continue to hold power. Diversified equity base in terms of type of shareholders, further additional finances were increase through debt.We perceive a clear distinction in terms of strategy and business models. Except for Air Berlin and Air Asia which have a hub and rundle model, all the airlines offer a point to point service. All LCC carriers have the same configuration of aircraft but Air Berlin differs on this aspect too.LCCs achieve breakeven at much lower level of freight factors (seat occupancy) than a Full serve well Carrier. It has been observed that in all the LCCs, the primary focus is to have high load factor in order to make good profits. All the LCCs evaluated have a high on-time performance, offering customer the facility to make a reservation through web and call centre. Most of them have no prior seating arrangement and have additional charges for check-in baggage. Meals on board are charged and no refund is applicable in case of a missed fights. All the LCCs are deriving good revenue from ancillary service offerings like hotels, cars and other packa ges through their website.All LCCs except Ryanair do worry about customer complaints and feedback. Ryanair has a bad name in terms of customer service and misleading statements to gain publicity. Loyalty in their targeted segments is driven by the overriding need for cheap travel, good timings, multiple frequencies and lower expectations in terms of customer service. Few LCCs like Southwest Airlines, Air Berlin provide a rudimentary loyalty programme in terms of facilities and privileges to its members when compared with a Full Service Carrier, but it is enough for the targeted segments expectationWe can summarize all the above LCCs on a continuum which depicts a pure LCC on the left side and a Full Service Carrier on the extreme right.Figure 1 Continuum of LCC Airlines3.4. DerivationsThere is clear differentiation in the development of culture in the organization. Air Berlin exhibits an autocratic culture which is represented through its boss. Air Asia exhibits the culture of its b oss too, open and cheerful. Southwest and Easy Jet exhibit a less hierarchic structure, full of freedom to the employees while Ryanair exhibits a culture in between the spectrum. Ryanair is process driven organization with little freedom to employees for decision making. Important decisions are highly centralized. It has grown so much that if he centralizes any further, the structure cannot sustain it.Hence there is no consistent pattern among these airlines from cultural perspective. However, we can definitely say that culture in these organizations is a reflection of the leadership behaviour of the founder entrepreneur.Nevertheless all the evaluated LCC airlines did succeed so far whereas so many after and before them failed. Reasons for this can be seen in this project work. During inception stage there is consistency in high level of delegation, coordination and control. All entrepreneurs had been able to recognize and to deal with the most important and influencing environment al factors on their home markets. All the airlines focused on cost leadership as a competitive advantage and made concrete efforts to mitigate the risks. Air Berlin formed subsidiaries to do away with labor unions. Air Asia formed a JV in Thailand with the Thailands Prime Minster family business to keep the political risk in check. The use of standard aircrafts to the extent possible and internet check-in as the model of bookings were part of the scheme to reduce costs.Hence the evaluated LCCs can be depicted as follows on five stages of business growth. (Figure 2).Figure 2 Five Stages of LCC Business GrowthWith reference to figure 2, we can consider that LCC is a product being sold by these airlines. There has been no basic RD on this product by any of these airlines. What they have done is to do applied research on the basic model of airline travel, to bring out LCC. Southwest Airlines pioneered this in the regular army followed by modified versions of this by other airlines in o ther geographies. The cut in the figure 2 demonstrates that the growth of LCC has followed five stages of business growth, with the corresponding time taken by them for each phase and how the efficiency has changed. However, they are at different stages for example Southwest, Easy Jet and Ryan Air are in the expansion stages hitting the maturity stage in the current model, while Air Asia and Air Berlin seem to be in Growth/ expansion stages. Now the LCC carriers are facing competition from the full service airlines. This is because, full services play airlines are planning certain percentage of their seats at low prices to fence with LCCs. Hence the efficiency of the LCC product sale for our sample airlines has reached a plateau. Now the time has come for the LCC carriers to apply development RD to give an S curve to this trend to modify the features of the product LCC. Different LCC airlines are doing this in different ways, e.g., Ryan airlines are cutting all possible costs, Ea sy Jet has targeted business passengers, Air Berlin wants to do everything possible for a good customer services, etc. This fits with the assertion of Schumpeter (1950), in that the technological progress can be seen as a continuous process in which capitalism constantly demands better value.Figure 3 LCC Airlines in Greiners Five-Stage Model of Growth (source Greiner 1972)When we try to review (figure 3) the leadership and management styles within these five airlines vis--vis, our finding is that it largely reflects the leadership style of the founder entrepreneur than the stages of Greiners five phase growth model. For example, Easy Jet and Southwest demonstrate collaboration in their management style, while Air Asia is in between the control and collaboration stages. Air Berlin and Ryan Air has high level of control and less delegation.Figure 4 Key Resource Factors in the Stages of Growth for LCCWith reference to figure 4, we have reviewed the resource requirement of the five LCCs . All the five airlines display that they had the resource requirements (financial, business, system and personnel resources) for different phases of growth as shown in this figure. For example, airline being an asset intensive business, they all had huge capital requirements at the start-up. They used a combination of models to meet their requirements leasing aircrafts to purchasing them during start-up and survival phases. But in subsequent stages, they all followed the same strategy owning aircrafts. To reduce on cost, Ryan Airlines had purchased old aircrafts also which was criticized by Easy Jet as cutting corners on safety aspects which could hit the LCC industry in case there were any problems to happen.With regard to figure 5, we see that there is a commonality between what was practiced in different environments globally and the typical 5 stage growth model linked to leadership. Initially, in the start-up stage, everything is centralized and business and personal goals ar e the same for entrepreneurs which get decentralized, delegated and a formal structure coming in at the expansion and maturity stages. The funding is done primarily through personal resources initially which later on is internally generated and additionally through tapping of the stock markets and taking on debt from banks. As most have avenues for growth, they do not follow an active dividend policy and reward shareholders through capital appreciationFigure 5 Key Management Factors in the Stages of Growth for LCCDerived from our evaluation the entrepreneurship model on antecedent influences, personal character traits, and leadership approach can be illustrated only for the stage of idea generation and inception (see Figure 6).Figure 6 Model of entrepreneurial antecedent influences, personal character traits and leadership approach in the stage of idea generation and inception for LCCMost important is that the autocratic leadership approach (Tannenbaum and Schmidt 1973) is dominant which is in close relation to McGregors supposition of Theory X (boss-centered leadership) in railway line to Theory Y (subordinate-centered leadership). The contingency model of leadership by Vroom and Yetton (1973) covers the evaluated leadership behaviour as Autocratic I and II.Bass (1985) points out four basic components of transformational leadership. First, idealized influence (leader charisma, respect of followers), second, inspirational motivation (display meaning and challenge to the work of followers), third, intellectual stimulation (new approaches for solutions, creative problem solutions), and fourth, individualized consideration (leader listens and provide concern to needs and development of individual followers). For the last two points the autocratic style of LCC airlines seems to be a contraindication. Yukl (2006) formulates some guidelines for transformational leadership which cover the results of our investigations announce a clear and appealing vision, explain how the vision can be attained, act confident and optimistic, express confidence in followers, use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasise key values, and lead by example. This is very close to inspirational or visionary leadership. Here the focus is on leaders skills of motivating and inspiring people aiming to bring together goals and values of the organization and individual needs and values.Particularly in the stage of idea generation and in the inception stage the entrepreneurs took all ten managerial roles which Mintzberg (1990) pointed out.The entrepreneurs took a figurehead role (the manager as a symbol who represents the organization in terms of formality), a leader role (demonstrating responsibility for staffing, motivation and guidance of subordinates) and a function role (with focus on horizontal relationships between manager and individuals/groups as well as the organizations environment). In terms of informational roles we found the entrepreneurs in a monitor role (t he manager receives formal/informal information from internal/external sources and develops an understanding of the working of the organization and its environment) as well as in a disseminator role (the manager as centre of information who transmits external information through his liaison role (see above) to the organization and internal information through his leader role amongst subordinates) and in a spokesperson role (the manager as a formal authority communicating to distinct stakeholders). And even in terms of so called decisional roles all entrepreneurs were very active. Here we saw the entrepreneurs in an entrepreneurial role (he is judge to initiate and plan controlled change by exploiting opportunities, solving problems and taking action for improvement of an existing situation and he may play a major part in aiming improvement and delegate responsibilities to subordinates), in a disturbance handler role (the manager reacts on involuntary and unpredictable situations an d he is judge to correct a situation in case of unexpected disturbance), in a resource allocator role (the manager makes choices about resources allocation) and least in a negotiator role (this role arises from managers authority, credibility, access to information and responsibility for resources allocation and the manager participates actively in negotiation with stakeholders, e.g. works council).3.5. Recommendation for the earlyWe clearly see that future growth in LCCs will be through collaboration with other LCCs and full service carrier. In other words, Southwest will grow collaborating with full service carriers like United, American, and Lufthansa and vice versa. Though the early stages of growth were in different segments , having established in their own markets, both LCCs and full service carriers are moving towards the middle of the continuum and we will see increased collaboration between them in future. Also the majority of the airlines are deliberating introduction the lo

The British Empire in Africa

The British imperium in AfricaHow far do you agree that changing attitudes to Empire within Britain explain both expansion and the dismantling of British imperial power in Africa?The British Empire began to expand into Africa in 1880 and by 1913 the pudding stone had control over 458 million people and 25% of the worlds land. However by 1981 the British Empire had come to an end after it could no hourlong afford the maintenance of such a big Empire. British involvement in Africa was a period that saw m some(prenominal) changes, some frugal, some worldwide and political changes, which in turn led to many adjustments in Africa itself. In turn these changes affected attitudes of the British government and public sound judgement and undoubtedly influenced anchor decisions about both expansion and dismantlement in Africa.Britains first intervention in Africa occurred in Egypt. Egypt was part of the Turkish Empire in 1882 scarcely discontentment lead to national revolts that sca red Britain. Following the purchase of the Suez Canal shares in 1875, British financial and trading interests had grown in the area. Britain could not allow her investments in Egypt jeopardized, as Egypt was a vital route to India. As a consequence of trying to protect these investments Britain occupied Egypt for 40 years longer than anti imperialistic Gladstone had hoped. This resulted in further territorial control for Britain unconsciously Gladstone had expanded the British Empire and ignited the change from in chunk rule to formal occupation in North Africa. This was all necessary as it was done to protect economic interests of the imperium, as well as securing the route to India.The expansion into the Sudan was comparable to that of Egypt as it was un tendencyal. Once again Britain got drawn in due to an uprising in the area. Gladstones first initiative was to put down this unrest as he sent General Gordon who was an experienced and take accountd soldier to evacuate British and Egyptian nationals from the Sudan to prevent any harm from occurring to them. In spite of this General Gordon disobeyed these orders with an intention of getting more land for the empire, resulting in his team and himself getting slaughtered two days before a British force was sent to help them. expanding upon of the empire at this point was coincidental and unanticipated as the expansion in North Africa was the outcome of an unplanned policy to exploit economic benefits and go out stability in the regions to care for British economic interests. However it was a turning point in attitudes to struggleds Africa as the occupation of Egypt resulted in the scramble for Africa amidst European powers.Expansion remained informal . However Men on the spot such as Cecil Rhodes, George Goldie and Sir William McKinnon influenced the central government and built their own success by means of shipping trade and selling natural resources. Britain wanted the West Coast of Africa for its p alm embrocate. The palm oil resources of West Africa were appealing as palm oil was used as an industrial lubricant and was the base for soaps and candles. However this involvement was not one of formal rule but rather informal trade.It is square that Britain was only involved for economic reasons and did not posses any ideology of expanding to the west. Britain took control of West Africa simply because the region was unstable due to local resistance and interests of separate European powers. In 1885 Chamberlain sent in a British force to support George Goldie in order to secure the region for British interests against both the Ashanti and the cut John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, in their review of The Imperialism of Free Trade, Vol. VI, no. 1 (1953) emphasise the economic importance of informal empire to the British government. Nevertheless Britain was in a dilemma, as it could no longer conform to its informal rule if other European powers makeed their control over West A frica. This resulted in further averse expansion and increased support for men on the spot, as Britain could not allow other European countries to control land in West Africa, which could adventure their trade interests. Britain was once again driven into East Africa due to trade benefits and fear of European rivals, immense tilt from Germany resulted in Britain giving support for McKinnon to establish the East Africa Company to combat the German East Africa Company. The change in the governments attitudes was a result of seeking to save the empire due to the vast competition it was experiencing at the period.Cecil Rhodes was the most dominant individual in the bear on for British expansion in reciprocal ohm Africa. He was a member of the Cape fan tan .It was clear that his vision was to expand the empire across all of Africa as he saw this as his sense of imperial destiny. His expansion in South Africa was well planned however this time the British government supported the e xpansion as Rhodes was able to persuade the British government to grant a charter to form the British African company. This was a transformation as the central government was supporting this expansion to South Africa, it was Joseph Chamberlain who encouraged Rhodes in acquiring more land. The government actively supported him, as they needed to prevent other European power from having influence and power in the area and alike they realized the massive economical benefits of South Africa.This led to a disagreement between the Boers who were descendants of the Dutch settlers in South Africa and the British. The Boers resented the policies of Joseph Chamberlain, which they thought he would carry their chance of independence and also they loathed the British for taking their natural resources like gold and minerals. Thus with equipment from the Germans the war between the Boers and the British had flared. This war would have detrimental effects on both sides as the Boers land got des troyed and many were sent to horrendous concentration camps, but the repercussions of this event would have a well-grounded effect on the dismantling of the Empire as British view on empire changed and the general public were starting to doubt if the empire was virtuously good for Africa and opinions shifted away from the preceding(prenominal) acceptance and pride felt by many in the country. The expansion into South Africa made the British Empire expect weak as she was asserting power on undeveloped people.During World contend one the African colonies played a major part in the war effort and their resources were much needed by Britain. At this point there was a change within the British Empire as the value of its colonies became homely. After WW1 the metropolitan attitudes to empire changed, as many politicians believed that the empire was solely based around economic interests and partnership. This was enforced greatly following WW1 as Britains economic situation had worsene d and national debts had increased to a staggering $4000 million, which meant undoubtedly the help and cooperation of the colonies was needed. At this point the empire was becoming an economic burden on the government, as the cost of war was unbearable, this contributed to the decline of the empire. WW2 had the same economic impact on the empire as it weakened it from its foundations which hence resulted in Britain losing her position as world leader due to no longer being economically capable of handling such a empire.Britain wanted to influence post war developments in Africa so that it was secure to metropolitan investors however this was not able to occur due to the increased nationalism in African colonies such as Kenya, were the Mau Mau rebelled against British occupation and rule. Revolts by the Mau Mau made investors in 1950 unenthusiastic about investing in the area. Consequently this lead to nationalist pressure in the push forward for independence. Robert Tignor in Capi talism and Nationalism At the End of Empire State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963 (1998) argues that it was neither foreign nor local business that were tombstone players but this national movement that contributed to the dismantlement of the British empire. A direct impact of the economic failures experienced by Britain after the world war was that it helped burn national movements such as the Mau Mau. As new ideas of self-determination and international climate attitude become more apparent after World War I and World War 2. This then reinforced the anti-imperial trend and encouraged growth in nationalism in Africa as the colonies began the push for independence. This then hastened the dismantlement of the British Empire.The rate of decolonisation was drastically accelerated because of the Suez crisis of 1956. Due to Nasser nationalizing the Suez Canal Britain and France invaded Egypt with the hope of replacing Nasser and taking control of the c anal. These actions had a massive backlash on British prestige as the United States condemned their actions. Subsequently it resulted in the British withdrawing from Egypt, which highlighted Britains fragileness. This turn in the balance of power scared heaven, as he all the same believed there was space on the world stage for the British Empire however he was mistaken, as the Suez crisis was the last straw in British imperialism as it changed the balance of world power considerably. Britain was no longer the dominant power and consolation and approval from the United States was needed before the government could take any major decisions. This was a major blow to the empires reputation and power, this loss of faith accelerated the dismantlement of the British Empire. This was seen through the change in politics in London as Eden resigned and a new modern Prime Minster was appointed. Harold Macmillans modern and progressive prospective would accelerate the decolonisation of Africa, as unlike Eden he did not support imperialism and realized that the empire could no longer deliver the same economic benefits as before. Macmillans shift in political opinion resulted in him addressing the South African parliament in 1960 with his wind of change speech. This speech would have a huge impact on the decolonisation of the empire as it was seen as an indication that the central government had accepted that Britain could no longer have imperial possessions. This was apparent in the rapid granting of independence for the African colonies.1 Libya gained independence in 1951 and Egypt in 1952 and were the first African nations to gain independence. In 1957 Ghana was the first country south of the Sahara to gain independence. This period in time marked a quick decolonisation as indicated by the attached map, as fourteen African countries gained their independence in 1960. By 1966, all but six African countries were independent and the dismantlement in these countries would b e distinguishable as it was not rapid but prolonged. One of these countries was Zimbabwe, which was antecedently known as Rhodesia, it was a settler colony and the European settler community kept the mass of the population, which was African from seizing majority rule. The European settlers.This resulted in aggressive nationalism, which was different to the rest of Africa. Subsequently it meant the prolonged granting of independence as Zimbabwe was finally independent in 1980.Overall the view of empire among the public had changed dramatically over the hundred-year period. Attitudes had shifted from the previous patriotic view of empire to a realization that empire could not exist in the new modern world. This was a result of events such as the Wars Britain was involved in and the dramatic change in international view. It is evident that Britain did not intend on expanding the empire in 1880 and the reluctance of this expansion was apparent in the expansion into North Africa. Howev er, once Britain realized the economic benefits of expanding their territories in Africa imperialism became much easier which then generated wide spread support for empire. Acquiring such beneficial land made Britain very weary of other countries as losing colonies in Africa would effectively result in a decrease in power and influence. This then resulted in the one major continuity in imperial policy through out this period, which was the focus on protecting the empires economic interests. The dismantlement of empire was fast paced as the empire had become more difficult to manage effectively. Empire was no longer being an economic benefit as it previously was in 1900, but more of an economic burden due to constantly trying to put down nationalism in Africa. The change in attitudes regarding the benefits empire in my opinion resulted in the decolonisation of these colonies and the end of an era in British rule.Part B bibliographyhttp//www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/54185/gail-m-ge rhart/capitalism-and-nationalism-at-the-end-of-empire-state-and-busine.British imperial and foreign policy 1846-1980 (textbook) compose by John Aldred.http//www.historylearningsite.co.uk/2095.htm.http//www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/suez_01.shtml.http//www.historylearningsite.co.uk/coldwar.htm.http//www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/COLDsuez.htm.http//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571713/Suez-Crisis.http//www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/projects/suez/suez.html.http//everything2.com/title/Suez+crisis.The lions share A short history of British Imperialism, Bernard Porter, 2004.British imperialism by R. Johnson.Empire documentary by Neill Ferguson.The history of Britain By Simon Schama.http//exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/students/curriculum/m7b/activity4.php.

The Globalization of Anime Essay -- The Merging of Cultures

Anime is an art form as it expresses cultural phenomena about Japan and its people. Like most otherwise countries, cartoon has existed in Japan throughout the 20th century and onward, which began with traditional drawings and comics that dealt with political, social, and historical themes. However, what separates anime from the rest is that the anime included a huge heap of Japanese refining within it. In every series that aired, they include special holidays like Natsu Matsurisummer festival, tea ceremony, traditional clothing such as kimono, etc. One could, from watching anime, notice the characters behavior be different and food and customs are different from American or western cartoon. Strangely, these differences in the anime, eastern media features, appeared in the philosophy of Confucius. Confucianism has played an important role in creating and maintaining the social values and order such as forgiveness, manner, respect, loyalty, and honesty since the sixth century. ter m Japanese society has become so much different since the early postwar era, these same principles are still highly valued as they are in some other forms. Recent shnen anime, anime for pre-teen and teen-age boys like Naruto and Bleach, is hooking their viewer with interesting storylines and action scenes while Confucian values spread. As this culture value mixed in, anime became interesting and seem to attract a wider audience every day because of its ability to make its audiences to see themselves in the show.The achievement of anime began with the famous Japanese artist Osamu Tezuka, one of the founding fathers of Japanese anime and manga. In the 1960s, Tezuka became a famous manga artist and was given the credit of creating Japans youthful anime i... ...r. Ed. Frank J. Lechner and John Boli. 4th ed. New York Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. 88-94. Print.Focus on the idea of both the global and the local are affecting the world at the same time while globalization process keep spreading .Sen, Amartya. How to Judge Globalism. The Globalization Reader. Ed. Frank J. Lechner and John Boli. 4th ed. New York Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. 17-21. Print.Analyze more a better way to understand what actually globalization is while making a point that globalization is also beneficial to the whole world.Wang, Georgette and Yeh, Emilie Yueh-yu. Globalization and intersection in Cultural Production A Tale of Two Films. Hong Kong David C. Lam Institute for East-West Studies, 2005. LEWI Working Paper Series no 36.Illustrate the processes of hybridization, and the conclusion on the debate on the globalization of culture.

Milton Friedman Essay examples -- Biography Biographies Essays

Milton FriedmanMilton Friedman has been credited with many different achievements, including being one of the near effective advocates of economic freedoms and free enterprise, being the greatest economic expert to ever walk the face of the earth, and proving every single word that Lord Maynard Keynes ever said to be wrong. Why these may or may non all be true, it is obvious that Friedman was a brilliant man of many accomplishments.Milton Friedman was born on July 15th, 1912 in New York City. His p atomic number 18nts were poor immigrants and his father died when he was a senior in high school. Despite all of these obstacles he had to overcome, Friedman received a scholarship to Rutgers University and got his B.A., an M.A. in 1933 from the University of Chicago, and a Ph.D. in 1946 from Columbia University. He worked as a research assistant to Henry Schultz at University of Chicago until 1937 when he started working with the National Bureau of Economics. There he jointly published the retain Incomes from Independent Professional Practice with Simon Kuznets, which also served as his doctoral dissertation at Columbia. This book introduced the concepts of permanent and transitory income. In 1933 Milton Friedman met Rose Director, a companion Economics student, and six years later they were married. Rose and Milton have collaborated on quite a few books and essays, and have established the Milton & Rose D. Friedman foundation, which promotes School Choice, which willing be explained in more detail later. In 1976 Milton Friedman won the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory, and for his deduction of the complexity of stabilization policy. Milton Friedman coined the terms only money matters as his emphasis on the role of monetary policy in the United States economy. Friedman is perhaps the most effective advocate for free enterprise and monetarist policies from 1945-1985. His only rival among economists of the 20th century would have to be Keynes.As well as being a Nobel Prize winner and just an overall brilliant man, Friedman served as Senator Barry Goldwaters informal economic advisor in 1964 and for Richard Nixon in 1968, then as President Nixons advisor. He served as President Reagans Economic Advisor on his Advisory Board in 1981. Friedman was awarded the Presidentia... ...n acceptable level. Another one of Friedmans strongest and most well known opinions was on the Federal Reserve and how it is practically useless. Friedman being the big free-market capitalist that he is, thinks that the Federal Reserve acts stupidly, rashly and doesnt take the time-lag into respect when making their dramatic decisions. Friedman also blames most of the economic instabilities on the federal reserves action. Milton Friedman has definitely been one of the most influential economists of the 20th century. His discoveries and theories in monetary policy, school cho ice liberalism and inflation relations impact economic history in a way only a few people can do. He and his wife Rose are now running the Foundation for school-choice and have just published Two Lucky People Memoirs.BibliographyFriedman, Milton. Bright Promises, Dismal Performance An Economists Protest. New York HBJ, 1983.Friedman, Milton and Rose. Free to tell apart A Personal Statement. New York HBJ, 1980.Hodges, Michael. Milton Friedman- A Tribute by MWHodges. May 2001. September 2001. Walters, Alan. A Dictionary of Economics, The New Palgrave. Vol.2, 1987. Pp.422-427.