Scientific method of colors Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Scientific method of colors - Essay Example It is interesting to know that the human mind is closely associated to colors. In fact colors have an effect on human behavior as well which is termed as color psychology. Colors have negative effects Studies have confirmed that certain color such as red is highly distractive and arousal in nature and can cause avoidance behavior is people whereas people tend to feel drowsy and sleepy when associated with the color blue (Jalil et al, 2012, p59). It is not only the emotional mind which is affected by colors but color also affect ones memory as well. Studies have shown that both consistency of colors and the right color combination helps in enhancing memory (Dzulkifli and Mustafar, 2013, p.3) Color is also associated with the mood of a person. An angry person would show more preference to colors such as orange or red while a calm person would prefer blue or green. Thus color coding for products or advertisements is often used by marketing strategists to allure consumers. Procedia-Social and Behavorial sciences, 2012,35:54-62. Retrieved from http://ac.els-cdn.com/S1877042812003746/1-s2.0-S1877042812003746-main.pdf?_tid=3b696f3e-582e-11e4-8f22-00000aacb35e&acdnat=1413791811_90d18bbb7bf2382abfcd1578c3788340 on 19 October,

The lack of IT systems within the logistics department of TATCO Yemen Literature review

The lack of IT systems within the logistics department of TATCO Yemen - Literature review Example Tatco-Yemen is a branch of Abudawood Group,a diversified group of companies that operates in the Middle East,Europe and the United States.The company specializes in the professional management of assets in different sectors including trading,sales and delivery of commodities,real estate,education and training of staffs,and financial investment. The company’s logistics focuses on supplying various products to consumers, an area where it has registered significant successes in the recent past. However, due to the rapid growth and expansion of its consumer base, stark challenges in the company’s management of inventory continue to exist. Tatco grapples with multiple problems related with the lack of Information Technology systems within the logistics department; these include, delays in the arrival of hard copies of important documents like invoices, causing unnecessary delays in customs clearance. Moreover, cargoes remain in the Yemeni port for longer due to lack of stora ge; and wrong information about the date of product. These problems have proved to be costly to the company. The paper explores the challenges of lack of IT systems in Tatco’s logistics department. Generally, logistics is an all-encompassing aspect of business involving planning, controlling and organizing the movement of goods and services, communications, real-time facts and people from the one point to another (Slater, 2012). Most of successful companies such as Tatco have in place strong a logistical department that supports the movement of its various assets across the country. The main problem with Tatco, however, is that most of its logistics processes are not properly integrated and built around IT systems. Processes such as handling of the materials, storage, information, shipment, packaging and inventory still lag behind, with the old paper work methods still in place (Safadi, 2003). The company suffers from ineffective logistical support and as such geographical restructuring of unfinished products, and the cleared inventories have been largely unpredictable, leading to products delays and rising operational costs (Von Der Gracht, 2008). Farooquie and Nasir (2010) in dicated that in any organization, the logistics department is expected to deliver on everything related with logistics by ensuring that the processes are developed in line with the organizational objectives of cost reduction and maximization of efficiency. However, the lack of IT systems within the organization present grave challenges to the organization’s storage processes distribution of wares, warehousing, and transportation of goods (Raj, 2009).

Maritime Logistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Maritime Logistics - Essay Example Therefore to not merely survive, but to grow throughout the crisis, K&X must develop mechanisms to benefit from opportunities that this environment has created. Prior to the crisis, K&X should have allocated resources to a crisis management plan that will maintain its current operations in a financially constricted environment with limited allocated of additional resources during the actual crisis. By conducting this preparation in more ordinary financial environments, K&X ensures that it will maintain relevance during challenging times while its industry peers are caught more unaware and must then engage in cost reduction measures to maintain their core business operations (Shim, Siegel & Dauber, 2008). Having already ensured its relevance and continuance in a challenging environment, K&X will then be poised to better recognize and exploit opportunities as they arise. This is particularly valuable as few new ideas, products, or processes are introduced to market in times of crisis. Most other organisations in the industry will be developing or implementing new services, allowing K&X a unique opportunity to fill that void (Griffin, 2008). In order to position itself favourable in a challenging environment, K&X must first develop and maintain a crisis management p... With this in mind, K&X must develop a crisis management plan as a living document that is continuously revised with the most currently available data, particularly when the industry begins to forecast the potential for an economic crisis. The management of the crisis will then involve application of the mechanisms developed and specified in the plan and the updated data will ensure that the organisation is responding to the environment as it actually exists (Kao, 2007). The exact measures of K&X for crisis management have been fully explored in Part II and are aimed at mitigating the effects of the crisis and maintaining continuity of operations. This will allow the organisation to remain fully crisis conscious, making its management of the situation part of its normal operations rather than as a separate issue that is address only after the disaster strikes (Drucker, 2008). Once implemented, the first stage of the K&X crisis management plan will evaluate the current business environment, specifically to determine potential areas of failure that may have a significant effect on core business operations (Drucker, 2008). This evaluation process is particularly important as failure during this phase may result in an irrelevant plan of action that may contribute to the collapse of the organisation. As such, the evaluation phase will require the heaviest commitment of time and resources to ensure that subsequent phases of the plan remain pertinent and relevant to the current environment. The goals of the evaluation must be a high relevance as this will ensure accuracy and precision in the later actions of K&X (Chesbrough, Vanhaverbeke & West, 2006). This evaluation process will include an assessment of

Scientific Arguments For and Against Contraception Essay

Scientific Arguments For and Against Contraception - Essay Example Despite so many methods being available, there are arguments for and against the use of the different methods of contraception. Abstinence is not engaging in the sexual act, which no doubt is the safest but the person does not get the pleasure of sexual intercourse. This is a biological need and helps release emotions and tensions. At the same time, abstinence is helpful for drug addicts and alcoholics when they are under the recovery program and are advised celibacy. It gives the person an opportunity to evaluate his/her sexual feelings. There are various barrier methods available, which block the flow of the sperm to the woman’s uterus and the fallopian tubes. Female condom, male condom, diaphragm, the cervical cap and the dam are the five barrier methods available. The female condom is not 100% leak proof. It can rupture and can lead to genital warts (Cat Bytes). The male condom is a thin cover usually of latex but can also be found of lambskin or polyurethane (Wills et al). Moisture, heat, and light make condoms susceptible to breakage (Sex-info). Animal skin condoms contain pores which allow HIV and other viruses to pass through but they are thinner and do not dull the sensitivity. Latex condoms remain the safest and only water based lubricants should be used before using the condom. Oil-based lubricants like Vaseline and baby oil damage the condom. Other barrier methods like the diaphragm, the cervical cap or the contraceptive sponge involve the use of spermicidal product, commonly containing nonoxynol-9 (N-9) (FHI 2005). Researches suggest that frequent use of N-9 increases the risk of HIV in women. using a male condom lubricated with N-9 is preferable. Diaphragm protects against the STD’s like gonorrhea and Chlamydia but not against all sexually transmitted diseases. It increases the risk of having a bladder infection and someone allergic to rubber cannot use this (Sex-info) A diaphragm should not be exposed to detergents and oil based

Greek or Shakespearean Essay Example for Free

Greek or Shakespearean Essay The essential component to any tragedy, Greek or Shakespearean, is a protagonist with a fatal flaw. In Greek tragedy this is called hamartia. This Latin term translates directly into the word â€Å"flaw† but is usually used to describe an excess of a personality trait virtue or vice. The protagonists fatal flaw pushes the the plot and action of the tragedy forward. It is this tragic flaw, which leads to the eventual downfall of the character, his circumstances, and the denouement of the drama. In examining the bulk of the literatures protagonists, no other character embodies the essential role of the flawed protagonist like Hamlet. Hamlets fatal flaw is his idealism. Only once Hamlet overcomes his idealism is he able to seek his revenge. The climax of the play occurs with Hamlets realization that the world is not as it seems and that he must shrug off his idealistic values and avenge his fathers murder Act 3, scene 4. In Shakespeares Hamlet, act 3 scene 4, is a pivotal scene within the play. The scene begins in the Queens chamber, as Hamlet slams the door open, with sword in hand. They engage in a dialogue of riddles combined with Hamlets mishandling of the weapon makes the Queen uneasy. Hamlet is upset at the Queen for marrying his fathers brother. The Queen screams Thou wilt not murder me? Help, ho! and as Polonius responds, Hamlet promptly shoves his sword into the curtain where Polonius hides and swiftly kills him. Hamlet wonders if it was the King, half hoping that it was Claudius, who Hamlet has been trying to kill the whole play. He fantasies about killing him, in the previous scene, he states In th incestuous pleasure of his bed. Hamlet is consumed by the idea of Claudius and Gertrude making love. Once he knows that he only killed Polonius he continues to scold him mother. She responds In th incestuous pleasure of his bed and Hamlet replies A bloody deed. Almost as bad, good mother, As kill a king and marry with his brother. Again Hamlet contrasts the two brothers that Gertrude has become involved with. Hamlet must avenge his fathers death. In doing so he must not only kill Claudius but also resurrect his father. He does this by outlining how his fathers good qualities compare to his uncles bad qualities. Hamlet laments: Look here upon this picture, and on this, The counterfeit presentment of two brothers. See what a grace was seated on this brow, Hyperions curls, the front of Jove himself,. . . This was your husband. Look you now what follows. Here is your husband, like a mildewd ear Blasting his wholesome brother. Hamlet contrasts the two brothers which he claims are completely the opposite. Hamlet believes that Gertrude might has mistaken one for the other. Hamlet continues to verbally assault his mother. Much of what he says is a rephrasing of Hamlets first solioquy, frailty thy name is woman as well as Hamlet aggressive behavior toward Ophelia in the nun scene. Act 3, scene 4 is the part of the play when the climax happens. Hamlet must first confront the cause of this murder, Queen Gertrude. It is within in this scene that Hamlet gets his first taste of vengenance and murder when he easily kills Polonius. After this murder, Hamlet decides he can and must kill his fathers murderer, Claudius. However, Hamlets leaves his mother alone because his fathers ghost appears and advises Hamlet to Leave her to heaven. Hamlet respects and loves his father in life and also in death and adheres to the ghosts advice. Hamlets goal is to bring back his fathers reign not just by pointing out Claudius faults but also by humiliating his mother and her new world to trash. Hamlet continues: Have you eyes? Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed And batten on this moor? Ha, have you eyes? Hamlet is trying to convince his mother give up her new life with Claudius, to find her loyalty to her dead husband, and back to the way things used to be. Hamlet takes the role of scourge and minister, and tells her she can redeem herself from being a whore to being the good wife she used to be. Hamlet advises her to leave Claudius, â€Å"the moor† and climbs up on her dead husbands â€Å"mountain†. Hamlet explains â€Å" throw away the worser part of your cleft heart, Hamlet instructs her, And live the purer with the other half. However, Hamlet, as much as he wants to love his mother, can not get past his belief that she is responsible for his fathers death. It is important to note that this scene takes place in the Queens bedroom. The conversation symbolized Hamlet and Gertrude essentially â€Å"in bed† together and hints to a sexual relationship. Hamlet speaks like a jealous lover chastising his girlfriend for sleeping with a different man and making their bed â€Å"enseamed†. The Queen is extremely upset and actually asks Hamlet to help her figure out what to do. At this point when Hamlet should have told her to confess, he urges her to stop her relationship with Claudius, Not this, by no means, that I bid you do: Let the bloat king tempt you again to bed (Act III, sc iv). It is in the moment that Hamlet allows his emotion to dominate over his intellect that Claudius was killed. He is consumed by the thoughts of his fathers demise and is haunted by the knowledge that his fathers soul will not be able to rest until his death is avenged. Hamlet willfully concludes, My thoughts be bloody or be nothing worth (Act IV sc iv). It is then that Hamlet finally had the ability to suppress his idealistic nature, and do what is right. The murder is not a well planned scheme and occurs in the heat of the moment. Hamlet, after the murder of Claudius never once wavers in his decision. He has done what is right and believes that There is a special providence in the fall of a sparrow (Act V sc ii). Hamlet is able to do anything but take vengeance upon the man who did away with his father and has taken his father’s place with his mother. The pain which should have caused him to take immediate revenge was replaced by pity for himself. It is Hamlets idealistic nature that creates the ultimate theme and driving force behind all the rising action, falling action, and resolution of this tragedy as well as the death of his mother. The way in which Hamlet views his mother, father, and Claudius is finally revealed in Act 3, scene 4. Once Hamlet is able to be honest about his feelings, he is able to finally seek revenge for his fathers murder. This scene is pivotal to denouement of the play and essential to Hamlets transformation from a boy to man who embodies the important qualities which were cherished and expect by an Elizabethan audiences.

Role Of Semantics In Communication English Language Essay

Role Of Semantics In Communication English Language Essay The word semantics means the study of meaning. It typically focuses on the relation between the signifers, such as words, phrases, signs and symbols, and what they stand for. Linguistic semantics is defined as the study of meanings that humans use language in expression. Other types of semantics include the semantics of programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics.The word semantic itself denotes a range of ideas, from the fashionable to the highly technological. It is frequently used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word collection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject matter of many formal investigations, over a long period of time, most especially in the field of formal semantics. In linguistics, it is the study of interpretation of signs or symbols as used by agents or communities within particular situation and contexts. Within this observation, sounds, facial terminology, body language, phonemics ha ve semantic (significant) content, and each has several branches of study. For instance in written language, such things as paragraph structure and punctuation have semantic content; in other form of languages, there is other semantic content .As mentioned above. the official study of semantics intersects with many other fields of inquiry, including lexicology, syntax, pragmatics, etymology etc though semantics is a well-defined field in its own context, but is often with artificial properties. In language philosophy, semantics and reference are related fields. Further related fields include philology, communication, and semiotics. With the interrelationship between them the formal study of semantics is therefore multifarious in nature. Semantic is in contrast with syntax, the study of the combinatory of units of a language (with no reference to their meaning). In the scientific vocabulary semantics is also known as semasiology. Introduction One of the major reasons for agent abstraction importance in engineering purposes is that it allows necessary complication and disability of todays computer systems to be dealt with better than before. Also the most conventional perspective of agents that intelligent software components, acting on an erratic environment. The typical solution to this problem is to employ a black-box approach, e.g., describing the agent behavior solely by means of its inputs and outputs. Modeling agent behavior within MAS introduces taxing issues, since both the agent internal behavior and interactive behavior are concerned. This is the problem that is addressed by formal semantics of agent communication languages (ACL) (Kone, Shimazu, and Nakajima 2000).This relationship between an agent abstract structural design and the specification of ACL semantics can be highlighted by considering the case of current semantics for ACLs such as, FIPA ACL (FIPA 2000) and KQML (ARPA Knowledge Sharing Initiative 1993; Labrou and Finin1997a; Labrou and Finin 1997b), which relate agent communications to agent mental state (Sadek 1992). For instance, in FIPA ACL, each communicative act specification is equipped by a feasibility precondition (FP).that must hold for the sender, and a rational effect that the sender may suppose to occur on the receiver, even though such an effect is not actually mandatory for the receiver, so as to preserve its autonomy. Both these specification, as well as the actual message content, are given in terms of a quantified, multi-modal logic with modal operators for beliefs (B), desires (C), uncertain beliefs (U), and intentions (I), called Semantic Language (SL) (FIPA 2000), which has its root from the work on the BDI framework. Despite FIPA not mandating any actual architecture for agents, FIPA ACL Semantics perfectly assumes that the agent behavior can be interpreted in terms of a BDI-like architecture,1 which can be pictorially represented. The agent internal machinery should be clearly aware of any communicative act sent or received by the agent (Act). It should be noted that since rational effect are not obligatory for the agent, their logics are not conceptually part of the represented portion of the agent. Instead, details about rational eà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ ects can be used by an agent internal machinery to assume the effect on the receiver of the acts it sends, whereas details about the feasibility preconditions can be used to infer the mental state of the sender. Decoupling Specification from Implementation Almost all the known semantics for ACLs are based on the concept of agent mental state, which may result in sending a communicative act, and how the reception of a communicative act may affect the receiver mental state or at least, which are the effects on the receiver that the sender may suppose to occur. In spite, these semantics do not mandate any specific architecture for agents, and are meant to be applicable in general fashion; they implicitly promote the concept of mental state as a notion in the specification of ACLs. This is likely to provide a good support for the cooperation of agents built over BDI frameworks. In fact, these specifications may drive the design of agent protocols (Bergenti, Botelho, Rimassa, and Somacher (2002), may help designing agent planners exploiting the notions of feasibility preconditions and rational effects to understand the effect to communications (Bergenti and Poggi 2001), may provide support to the verification of conformance of an agent implementation with respect to a specification, even though, at this time, this problem has yet to be faced (Wooldridge 1998).On the other hand, serious limits in the workability and applicability become apparent when the ACL specification has to support cooperation among agents built over different architectures. In practice, in those cases where the agent wraps a physical resource, a legacy system, an information system, and so on, it is unclear what is the benefit of supposing its behavior can be understood. Viroli and Omicini (2001).For instance, it is unclear how do feasibility preconditions apply in these cases, and what is the benefit of supposing that some rational effect may occur. Also, this kind of specification is useless to the end of designing the agent wrapper, and makes the problem of proving conformance even more complex. As far as an ACL is concern to help standardizing age nt cooperation, it is clear that the agent abstract architecture implicitly assumed by the ACL. Semantics should be as much abstract and implementation-decoupled as required in order to provide for a widely applicable specification tool. To this end, this easy consider the abstract architecture for agents derived from the ontology developed in Viroli, Moro, and Omicini (2001), which captures the very notion of observation in computer systems. By this framework, agents are represented as observable sources of information, providing their unique individual viewpoint over the world and making it available to other agents. Here the roles of semantic in communication could be explained succinctly by examine the following sequences of communication conversation with the use of semantic set. There are certain number of magnitude of semantic in term of space in this case is four: the normative positions of the speaker and hearer before and after the utterance. Therefore, if d = 4, the number of possible communicative acts is 22352! (Computation of this figure may not be necessary in this context). Consistency is to be anticipated in a domain in which, assumption that agents can observe a common scene and ground their utterances in it, is simply irrational .The focus of that consistency needs to be squarely upon how communication can be described, rather than up library of communication primitives. The aim is to provide agents with a system by which they can tune a language with great accuracy to the needs at hand, and the ability to do this outweighs the potential pitfalls of any particular language. Const ruction process, such as Support Vector Machine (SVM) is thus well suited to domains in which agents might reasonably be expected not to suggest a huge number of different primitives. Primitives were to be submitted for consideration. This would bring down the complexity dramatically (it would no longer be necessary to work on the power set of the points in semantic space), but at the cost of requiringlonger sequences of primitives in from it is one of the advantages of the approach. To explain the function of SVM, three agents could be considered, each of them wishes to introduce communicative acts such as commands, permissive, and co missive acts into a shared communication language. Each act specifies (or partially specifies) transitions of the speaker and hearer acts are represented Lindahl (1997).Here with a set of transitions for the speaker and an equivalent set for the hearer. For instance, an act may state that, before the act, the speaker, i is permitted to remain passive toward the propositional content of the act and after the act, i is committed to remain passive. In other words, i is, before the act, in any of the Lindahl states 1, 2, or 4 and after the act in the state 6. Thus, the set of transitions for the speaker is: {(1, 6), (2, 6), (4, 6)}. For the hearer j, before the act, j is permitted to bring about p and after the act, j is committed to bring about p. In other words, j is, before the act in any of the states 1, 2, or 3 and after the act i n state 5. Thus, the set of transitions for the hearer is: {(1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 5)}. This particular communicative act results in the hearer being obliged to bring about p and the speaker being obliged to remain passive toward p: the hearer must bring about p and the speaker cannot interfere. The initial state of the semantic fixing between these three agents is that agents 1, 2, and3 are interested in the following sets of communicative acts being included in the language: Agent 1. This agent wishes to introduce two actions into the language. 1. a, A command that commits the hearer to bring about p such that the hearer is not a priori forbidden from doing so. Speaker: {} Hearer: {(1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 5)} 1.b An act that commits the speaker to bring about p such that the agent is a priori forbidden from doing so. Speaker: {(1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 5)} Hearer: {} Agent 2. This agent wishes to introduce two actions into the language. 2. a An act that permits the hearer to bring about p such that the agent is a priori committed to remain passive. Speaker: {} Hearer: {(6, 2)} 2.b An act that commits the hearer to remain passive toward p such that the agent is a priori permitted to doing so or remaining passive. Speaker: {} Hearer: {(2, 6)} Agent 3. This agent wishes to introduce two actions into the language: 3. a, A command that commits the hearer to bring about p and the speaker cannot Interfere. Speaker: {(1, 6), (2, 6), (4, 6)} Hearer: {(1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 5)} 3. b A put-option act. Speaker: {(2, 6)} Hearer: {(6, 2)} SVM then proceeds in the following way: Round 0. Agent 1 broadcasts initiate (1, 2, and 3) (1-2-3 is the casting vote sequence). The language, L is initialized. Each communicative act specification refers to the changes in normative position of the agents that will take on the roles of speaker and hearer when the act is used during communication. This could be seen in this conversation between three agents Round 1. Agent 1 has the casting vote. Agent 1 broadcasts suggestion (1.a); agent 2 broadcasts suggestion (2.a); and agent 3 broadcasts suggestion (3.a). There is a tie. However, rather than using its casting vote to compel the inclusion of 1.a, agent 1 decides to endorse agent 3s suggestion. Agent 1 broadcasts suggestion (3.a), and so this act is included in L. Round 2. Agent 2 has the casting vote. Agent 1 broadcasts suggestion (1.b); agent 2 broadcasts suggestion (2.a); and agent 3 broadcasts suggestion (3.b). There is a, tie, and so the agent with the casting vote, agent 2, broadcasts suggestion (2.a). 2.a is included in L. Round 3. Agent 3 has the casting vote. Agent 1 broadcasts suggestion (1.b);agent 2 broadcasts suggestion(2.b); and agent 3 broadcasts suggestion(3.b). There is tie, Although 2.a and 2.b use the same transitions as 3.b, 3.b is being introduced for a different purpose-for the trading of options-and so agent 3 uses the casting vote to broadcast suggestion (3.b). 3.b is included in L. Round 4. Agent 1 has the casting vote. Agent 1 broadcasts suggestion (1.b); agent 2 broadcasts suggestion (2.b); and agent 3 broadcasts suggestion (null). There is a tie, and so agent 1 uses the casting vote and broadcasts suggestion(1.b). 1. b is Included in L. Round 5. Agent 2 has the casting vote. Agent 1 broadcasts suggestion (null); agent 2 broadcasts suggestion (2.b); and agent 3 broadcasts suggestion (null). 2.b has the only vote, and so this is included in L. Round 6. Agent 3 has the casting vote. Agent 1 broadcasts suggestion (null); agent 2 broadcasts suggestion (null); and agent 3 broadcasts suggestion (null). SVM terminates. L = {3.a, 2.a, 3.b, 1.b, 2.b}. Here, suppose that agent 2 is responsible for access to an information source. The two acts introduced by these agents, 2.a and 2.b, allow it to permit and forbid access. Although agent 3 is not in control of this information source.. Agent 2, the manager agent is interested in issuing commands and allowing agents to commit to activities, hence its interest in 1.a and 1.b. It does, however, accept the inclusion of 3.a rather than 1.a-it accepts that it should not interfere with agents to whom it has given commands. This simple example explains sorts of communicative actions that can be included in a common language and how the simple voting mechanism may be used to construct such a language. This language can be seen as a subset of a more complete language for managing the activities of agents within an organization. Indeed there all kinds of slight distinctions, but these distinctions have real operational value, which can be exploited by the agents themselves. Finally, the work of Steels and Kaplan (1999) tackles the problem of language acquisition by an axes .Thus focus on a specific semantic space, having axes of color and position. The individual primitives discussed have either specific values on one or more axes (red, blue and on the edge), or have ranges of values on one or more axes (toward the center, close to the left and toward the top). This easy advocated a new approach to agent communication languages. Rather than viewing the specification as an off-line, design-time process, it is clearer now that open multi-agent systems should be a dynamic, run-time process.. Thus, agents can use their knowledge of the dialog type, their communication objectives, and their social relationships with one another to tailor the communication language to their prevailing circumstances hence the role of semantic cannot be underrated in communication.

The Discovery and Colonisation of America

The Discovery and Colonisation of America In 1492, America was discovered by Christopher Columbus. It had, however, already accidentally been discovered by Scandinavian Vikings about 500 years earlier. The Vikings were not alone when they discovered America. It was an unknown fact that Native Americans had come to America and inhabited it much earlier. Because this wasnt acknowledged, the Native Americans were never seen as the original discoverers. In 986, Bjarni Herjolffson set out from Norway in an attempt to reach Iceland and eventually Greenland. Greenland was the land Bjarnis father, also an adventurist, had failed to completely colonize on his fleet, led by Erik the Red. Bjarni got lost on the way to Greenland because of fog and storms. Eventually, he did find the land he was searching for. Bjarni did not discover America, but he was the first to make it out while he was at sea. Back in Norway, one of Erik the Reds sons, Leiff, became interested in the story Bjarni told. He decided he wanted to continue the adventure and find out which land Bjarni had seen on the horizon. In search of the best landscape to land on, Leif Eriksson and his crew sailed along the eastern coast of America. After passing the Baffin Island and what is now Labrador, they picked the best environment. They named it The Wineland. Leiff Erikssons crew inhabited the area, where they found grapevines and other products to bring home. They built houses, stayed for the winter and returned home with wine and food. The Discovery of America: The Spanish and Portuguese The first explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese. In 1492, a Spanish expedition lead by Christopher Columbus sailed to the continent America and introduced the New World to the Western World of that time. He began studying the civilizations that he had encountered : the friendly Native Americans. After this, European conquest, exploration, and Colonisation quickly followed and expanded. After the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, approved of by the Pope, Spain and Portugal divided the entire non-European world between themselves, with a line drawn through South America. This first occurred along the Caribbean coasts on the islands of Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba, and beginning in the early 16th century, extended into both North and South America. In 1498, Columbuss third trip reached the South American coast. With help from their powerful Indian allies, the Spanish rapidly conquered territory. As a result, they gained control of much of western South America, Central America and Mexico by the mid-16th century. Over this same period, Portugal colonized much of eastern South America, which is now Brazil. The Colonisation of America During the early and mid-sixteenth century, the English tended to view North America as a base for piracy and harassment of the Spanish(In the late 1560s a rebellious act broke out in the Netherlands, and the rebels were Protestant. British Queen Elizabeth aided these rebels. Spain, being Catholic, saw these rebels as a threat. Because of the fact that the British helped the Dutch Protestants, Spain became resentful towards England). By the end of the century, the English began to think more about North America as a place to colonize: as a market for English goods and a source of raw materials. The English claimed that New World Colonisation offered England many advantages. Not only would it enrage Catholic Spain, it would supply England with raw materials and provide a market for finished products. America would also provide a place to send the English poor. America also satisfied more personal needs : rigorously religious English felt that they were not accepted in England, and Ame rica would create a more liberal environment. Spain and England were hostile towards eachother over trade and colonisation. On August 8th, 1588, the English defeated Spain in the Spanish Armada. England was now able to colonize North America. English Joint Stock companies founded Jamestown in 1607. They failed because they were looking for gold, didnt farm, and drank contaminated water. They came during spring, which was deceiving. They didnt plan for winter. Many died the first winter. John Smith, who had been to America in the winter before, saved them. He said, Work or Starve. So, they started farming, and everybody was fed. The English Joint Stock company sent over 50 women to help repopulate Jamestown. The Pilgrims werent called Pilgrims until 150 years later. These strictly religious immigrants called themselves Saints. The Saints left England because they were not accepted for their religion. They went to the Netherlands, but they didnt want their children growing up being non-Englishmen. For this reason, they came to the New World. Early other European Colonisations in North America included the French colonies of Acadia and Canada, the Swedish colony of New Sweden, and the Dutch New Netherland. Also Sweden participated in occupying North America. As the colonies started to grow, Britain decided on the policy of salutary neglect : the British American colonies were to be obedient towards Great Britain. Conflicts between Britain and America The Seven Years War resulted in the decisive turning point in British-colonial relations. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 criticized Britains control of the seas and trade, as well as its sovereignty over much of the North American continent. To fund this war, Britain, unable to borrow any more money from other countries, raised its taxes. This had a very heavy effect on the citizens. Also, bureaucracy arose in England in order for the government to get all the money they could. Britain found it North Americas responsibility to aid them in their war expenses. However, New world institutions of self-government and trade, used to the policy of salutary neglect, refused and rebelled against this demand. The war developed and Britain became more dependant on North America : Military supplies and an increased demand for goods contributed to the wealth of the North American Colonies. The 7 years war had put Britain into great debt, so the Parliament insisted on a raise of taxes once again. The British government believed the colonies should pay their fair share to the nations expenses. Because the colonies were not represented in the Parliament, the North Americans found the raised taxes intolerable. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the highest authority in the empire, and so anything Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that not even Parliament could violate. The American Independence The concept of American Independence began when many more colonists began to reject the authority of the Parliament, since they werent represented, but were expected to pay taxes. They believed this violated their rights as Englishmen. The colonies petitioned King George III for intervention with the Parliament. To force him to do so, they boycotted British goods but kept their loyalty to the British crown. These acts were ignored. The colonists proceeded to create an army. Following acts to achieve the same goal were seen as rebellion and treachery. In 1776 the Colonies responded by declaring their independence Frances government secretly provided supplies to the revolutionaries. France eventually entered the war in 1778 along with the Spanish and Dutch. They treatened to invade Great Britain and put the English army, which wasnt so strong, to the test. Due to Great Britains naval power, it was able to occupy coastal cities in America. The more rural areas, where most of the population lived however, were less easy to control. The French involvement proved to be beneficial when the French naval victory at Yorktown in 1781 to the surrender of a British army occurred. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the war and recognized the sovereignty of the United States. http://news. softpedia. com/news/How-Did-Vikings-Discover-America-49891. shtml http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/European_Colonisation_of_the_Americas http://www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/database/article_display. cfm?HHID=670 http://mr_sedivy. tripod. com/america. html http://www. taxanalysts. com/museum/1756-1776. htm http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Salutary_neglect http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War